ap bio semester 1 final

Cohesion

The tendency of water molecules to stick to each other due to hydrogen bonding.

Adhesion

The property of water that allows it to stick to other surfaces, important for capillary action.

Universal Solvent

Water's ability to dissolve many substances due to its polarity, facilitating biochemical reactions.

Surface Tension

A strong surface layer created by hydrogen bonding in water, enabling small organisms to walk on its surface.

Ice Floating

Water expands when frozen, making ice less dense than liquid water, providing insulation for aquatic ecosystems.

High Specific Heat Capacity

Water's ability to absorb and retain heat, stabilizing temperatures in organisms and ecosystems.

Dehydration Synthesis

A process by which monomers bond to form polymers through the removal of water.

Hydrolysis

The breakdown of polymers into monomers by adding water.

Carbohydrates

Biological macromolecules consisting of C, H, O that serve as energy storage and structural components.

Monosaccharides

The monomer unit of carbohydrates, examples include glucose.

Polysaccharides

The polymer form of carbohydrates, including starch and cellulose.

Lipids

Macromolecules made of C, H, O (sometimes P) that serve as energy storage and structural components of cell membranes.

Glycerol & Fatty Acids

The monomers that make up lipids.

Proteins

Macromolecules of C, H, O, N (sometimes S) that perform various functions including enzyme activity, structure, and signaling.

Amino Acids

The monomers that form proteins.

Polypeptides

The polymers formed by linking amino acids together.

Nucleic Acids

Macromolecules made of C, H, O, N, P that store, transmit, and express genetic information.

Nucleotides

The monomer units of nucleic acids.

DNA & RNA

The polymers formed from nucleotides, involved in genetic information storage and expression.

Primary Structure

The unique sequence of amino acids in a protein.

Secondary Structure

The local folding of proteins into alpha helices and beta sheets, stabilized by hydrogen bonding.

Tertiary Structure

The overall three-dimensional shape of a protein, determined by R-group interactions.

Quaternary Structure

The level of protein structure involving the assembly of multiple polypeptide subunits.

Denaturation

The loss of a protein's shape due to external factors such as pH and temperature, leading to loss of function.

Plasma Membrane

The outer boundary of a cell that controls the movement of substances in and out.

Cytoplasm

The jelly-like substance within a cell, containing organelles and facilitating metabolic reactions.

Ribosomes

Cellular structures where protein synthesis occurs.

Prokaryotic Cells

Cells lacking a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, small in size (1-5 µm), e.g., bacteria.

Eukaryotic Cells

Cells with a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, larger in size (10-100 µm), e.g., plant and animal cells.

Gene to Excretion Pathway

The sequence from DNA transcription to protein secretion involving nucleus, ribosomes, rough ER, Golgi apparatus, and plasma membrane.

Nucleus

The organelle that stores genetic material and is the site of mRNA transcription.

Smooth ER

The organelle responsible for lipid synthesis and detoxification.

Rough ER

The organelle involved in protein synthesis and processing.

Golgi Apparatus

The organelle that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins into vesicles.

Lysosomes

Organelles containing digestive enzymes for the breakdown of waste.

Mitochondria

Organelles that produce ATP through cellular respiration.

Chloroplasts

Organelles in plant cells where photosynthesis occurs.

Surface Area-to-Volume Ratio

The relationship in cells that affects nutrient exchange efficiency, with smaller cells having a higher ratio.

Fluid Mosaic Model

The model describing the structure of the plasma membrane as a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.

Passive Transport

The movement of substances across a membrane without the use of energy, including diffusion and osmosis.

Facilitated Diffusion

The process of passive transport that uses transport proteins to move molecules across a membrane.

Active Transport

The movement of substances across a membrane requiring energy (ATP), including pumps and vesicle transport.

Photosynthesis Equation

6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2, the process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy.

Calvin Cycle

The stage of photosynthesis that uses ATP and NADPH to synthesize glucose in the stroma.

Glycolysis

The first stage of cellular respiration occurring in the cytoplasm, converting glucose into pyruvate.

Feedback Loops

Regulatory mechanisms in biological systems involving negative feedback for homeostasis and positive feedback for amplifying responses.

Cell Communication

The process by which cells communicate with one another via direct contact, local signaling, and long-distance signaling mechanisms.

Cell Cycle Checkpoints

Regulatory points in the cell cycle where the cell evaluates size, DNA damage, and replication to ensure proper cell division.

Compartmentalization - Golgi Apparatus

Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins in a series of membrane-bound sacs, ensuring efficient processing before transport.

Compartmentalization - Mitochondria

Has compartmentalized spaces for cellular respiration: the matrix for the Krebs cycle and the inner membrane for ATP production via the electron transport chain.

Compartmentalization - Chloroplast

Separate photosynthesis into distinct areas: the thylakoid membrane for light-dependent reactions and the stroma for the Calvin cycle, optimizing efficiency.

Proteins - Formation Order

Nucleus, Ribosomes, Rough ER, Golgi Apparatus, Vesicles, Plasma Membrane

Mitosis

• Prophase – Chromatin condenses into chromosomes, nuclear envelope breaks down, spindle fibers form.

• Metaphase – Chromosomes align at the cell’s equator, spindle fibers attach to centromeres.

• Anaphase – Sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite poles.

• Telophase – Chromosomes decondense into chromatin, nuclear envelopes reform, spindle fibers break down.

Cytokinesis

• Animal Cells – A cleavage furrow forms, pinching the cell into two.

• Plant Cells – A cell plate forms, developing into a new cell wall.