Sociological explanations for ethnic inequality

What theory uses The Host-immagrant model as an explanation for ethnic inequality ?

Functionalists 

Which theorist came up with the idea of the host immigrant model ?

Patterson (FUNCTIONALSIT)

How did Patterson’s theory of the Host immigrant model depict britain ?

• A stable

• Homogenous

• Orderly society

• With a high degree of consensus over values and norms

What did Patterson argue disrupted the stable , orderly and homogenous society of Britain ?

• Immigrant ‘strangers’

• From 1950 onwards

• He believed they subscribed to different sets of values

What did Patterson attempt to depict in his study ?

• The culture clash 

• Between…

• West Indians ( Boisterous and noisy , didn’t understand concepts such as queueing) 

• English hosts ( Valued privacy ,quiet and ‘keeping oneself to oneself.’

Why did the host-immigrant model argue that these clashes occurred ?

• Understandable anxieties on part of the host community 

• The hosts were not actually racist , just unsure how to act toward the immigrants

• The hosts fear could often spill into suspicion and resentment because the immigrants competed for the hosts jobs and houses. 

What was Patterson’s main problem in terms of the host-immigrant model ?

• NOT RASCISM

• NOT BLACK AND WHITE HOSTILITY 

• It was cultural strangeness 

Why would Brown and Gay disagree with Paterson ?

• Because she places the blame on the ethnic minority

• Rather than the white majority

How would Giddens (a postmodernist) criticise Patersons Host-immigrant model ?

• Giddens would argue that the world is largely multicultural and globalised 

• Therefore the discussion of ‘assimilation’ into a singular British identity is wholly outdated 

• Giddens argues that we should be looking more towards the idea of cultural pluralism - the idea that ethnicities obtain their own cultures while also adjusting to a society which accepts cultural diversity 

How would Bordieu (a neo marxist) criticise Pattersons Host-immigration model ?

• For failing to ackowledge the fact that the feelings of ‘Culturual strangeness are the fault of the powerful in society’

• Rather than the less powerful and their so called inability to assimilate 

What perspective does Roberts write from ?

Functionalist 

What does Roberts state ?

• Cultural explanations

• Of economic differences between Asians and Afro-carribieans are plausible

What does Roberts use to support his argument

• Other sociologists research

What socologists did Roberts use to back up his argument ?

• Modood et al

• Cashmore 

How does Modood Et al reflect Roberts argument ?

• Modood found that 

• 3/5 of bangledeshi women

• ½ of Pakistani women

• 1/5 of pakistani men

• 1/5 of bangladeshi men

• DID NOT SPEAK ENGLISH

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• Modood et al found that asian immagrants brought strong ideas of entreupreneurship with them and these soon found expression in the estabmisment of ethnic business.

• HOWEVER

• The traditional and cultural networks of African-carribean’s had been weakend by their bitter experience of colonialsim and slavery. 

How does Cashmore’s study support Roberts argument ?

• Cashmore reports that successful black eutrepenurship is often treated eith suspoicion in britain

• I.E. Black communities may accuse other succesful black people of ‘selling out’ or of ‘adopting white values’

Q: How do Davis & Moore use role allocation to explain ethnic inequalities in employment and pay?

Davis & Moore argue society allocates jobs based on ability and motivation. Ethnic minorities are perceived as having fewer necessary skills (e.g. weaker English) or less willingness to take paid work (e.g. purdah), so they are allocated lower-paid, lower-status roles. This leads to ethnic inequalities in employment and income.

What is “functional uniqueness” and why are ethnic minorities less likely to achieve it according to Davis & Moore?

Functional uniqueness refers to jobs requiring rare abilities or long periods of training (e.g. specialist professions). Role allocation suggests ethnic minorities are less likely to be placed in these roles, so they are less likely to receive the higher pay and status attached to them.

Why do Davis & Moore argue that unequal rewards are functional for society, and how does this justify ethnic inequality?

Unequal rewards motivate people to train for the most important jobs. By arguing that the “best people” naturally rise to “the best jobs”, ethnic minorities’ lower pay/status can be justified as functional — because they are viewed as lacking the skills or motivation needed to reach top roles.

Which other theories can be used to support Davis and Moore ?

• Modood 

• Cashmore

How does Parkin (Neo-Weberian) explain ethnic inequality?

Parkin argues that privileged groups (e.g. whites) use exclusion strategies to block ethnic minorities from high-status rewards and opportunities, causing persistent inequality.

What is social closure and how does it relate to ethnic inequality?

Social closure is when powerful groups restrict access to jobs, pay and status. Parkin says white majority groups do this to ethnic minorities through practices and laws.

How does Parkin directly oppose Davis & Moore’s role allocation theory?

Davis & Moore claim inequality reflects ability and motivation; Parkin argues inequality is produced by racist exclusion, not fair competition for talent.

How does Young’s concept of meritocracy explain ethnic inequality?

Young argues society rewards merit (skills + effort). Some ethnic minorities may lack labour-market valued skills (e.g. language on arrival), so they are positioned in lower-paid jobs because they demonstrate less “merit.”

How does the Sewell Report support meritocratic explanations of ethnic inequality?

The Sewell Report found little evidence of structural racism and highlighted that many minority groups succeed educationally and professionally, suggesting opportunities are based on merit rather than race.

What is the difference between anecdotal and structural racism according to Sewell?

Sewell argues many claims of racism are anecdotal (individual experiences) and lack evidence of racism being built into institutions, meaning the UK is not fully post-racial but still broadly meritocratic.

How do Castles & Kossack explain ethnic inequality using the “reserve army of labour”?

Capitalists use immigrant and ethnic minority workers as a cheap, flexible pool of labour to suppress wages. Having more workers than jobs weakens bargaining power, keeping pay low.

How are ethnic minority workers affected during booms and slumps in the economy?

During economic booms they are recruited to fill shortages, but in slumps they are the first to face redundancies, showing their disposable position in capitalism.

What is the “divide and rule” strategy according to Castles & Kossack?

The bourgeoisie encourage competition and racism between ethnic groups to prevent workers uniting. This distracts the proletariat from capitalism and weakens their power to demand better pay and conditions.

How do Marxists argue the media contributes to ethnic inequality?

The bourgeoisie use media control to stimulate racist stereotypes and scapegoat minority groups, fuelling division and preventing class solidarity

Which other study could you use to support Castels and Kossack’s theory ?

• Poole 

• Islamaphobic headlines 

• UNIT 1                                     

What is the postmodernist criticism of Castles & Kossack’s theory?

Not all ethnic minorities are disadvantaged. Their positions vary, with some achieving high income, wealth, and professional success. We cannot treat all minority groups as the same.

Which ethnic minority groups tend to outperform whites in salary and employment?

Chinese and Indian communities, with many minorities achieving significant financial success (e.g., over 5,000 Muslim millionaires in Britain).

What does New Right thinker Murray argue about the causes of inequality?

Inequality is due to individual actions of the underclass (poor socialisation, resisting employment) rather than deliberate exploitation by capitalism.

How does Murray’s view oppose Castles & Kossack?

He rejects the idea that capitalism deliberately uses ethnic minorities as a reserve army of labour; instead, inequality is the result of personal behaviour and choices.

According to Cox, when did racism as we know it emerge and why?

Racism emerged in the 14th century alongside capitalism. Before this, people were seen as different, but no group was considered superior or inferior.

How did capitalism and colonialism contribute to racism?

European nations exploited colonies economically, imposed their language, law, and culture, and used the idea of white superiority to justify systematic exploitation.

What role did racism play in maintaining capitalist exploitation?

Racism was encouraged to make economic and political exploitation appear acceptable, legitimising European dominance and white supremacy.

What is Cox’s main argument about the relationship between capitalism and racial prejudice?

Racism is not natural but a product of capitalism; without the development of capitalism, the world might never have experienced racial prejudice.

What is the CCCS criticism of Cox regarding the origins of racism?

Racism existed before capitalism and colonialism. Early Christianity associated white with purity, black with evil, and labeled non-Christians as pagans

How do CCCS explain racism in modern Britain?

The bourgeoisie encourage racist attitudes within the contemporary white working class, e.g., Black Britons are often framed as problematic.

How does CCCS differ from Cox’s explanation of racism?

Cox sees racism as created by capitalism; CCCS argue it has longer historical roots and can exist independently of capitalist systems.

Does CCCS deny the impact of colonialism on racism?

No — colonialism increased racism, but it wasn’t the only source.

What is the Castles & Kossack scapegoating explanation of ethnic inequality?

When society faces social or economic problems, relatively vulnerable groups (e.g., black people) are blamed instead of the capitalist class, protecting the powerful and maintaining cheap labour.

How does scapegoating benefit the rich and powerful?

It reduces criticism and pressures for radical change while justifying low pay and poor working conditions for minority workers.

What do Hall et al. argue about the role of media and police in scapegoating?

The bourgeoisie use these institutions to distract the population from the real problems of capitalism by creating scapegoats blamed for societal issues.

Give an example of scapegoating in contemporary Britain.

Immigrants are blamed for NHS bed shortages, whereas the real cause may be austerity measures and tax policies.

What can you use as the counterargument for Castles and Kossak and Hall et al’s scapegoating theory ?

• Young (meritocracy) 

What is cultural capital according to Bourdieu?

Skills, knowledge, habits, or characteristics that benefit individuals because they align with the culture of those in power and help maintain privilege.

How does cultural capital disadvantage ethnic minorities in the workplace?

Employers prefer candidates who “fit in” with the dominant culture, so minorities may face bias in hiring, promotions, and wages.

Give examples of cultural capital that may disadvantage ethnic minority candidates.

Clothing that signals difference (headscarves, turbans), social habits like Friday night pub visits, or subtle workplace norms.

What are possible outcomes of lacking cultural capital in the workplace?

Lower wages, limited promotion opportunities, and higher rates of self-employment among ethnic minorities.

What is Baudrillard’s main criticism of Bourdieu’s cultural capital theory?

Society is much more diverse and complex than Bourdieu assumes; individuals within the same group can be very different.

Why might Bourdieu’s theory be too simplistic according to postmodernists?

It generalises values and norms across groups (e.g., working class, ruling class), ignoring individual differences.

How do postmodernists view individual differences within social groups?

People are as different from others in their own group as they are from people in other groups; we cannot assume all members share the same norms or values.

According to Weber, why might ethnic minorities face disadvantage even if they are part of the working class?

They face status inequality in addition to class inequality; prejudice from the majority group can limit opportunities.

How do class and status inequality combine according to Rex & Tomlinson?

Ethnic minorities can experience both poverty from class inequality and marginalisation from status inequality, creating an underclass.

What can the combination of class and status inequality lead to among ethnic minorities?

Alienation, frustration, and sometimes social unrest such as inner-city riots.

How does power inequality disadvantage ethnic minorities in society?

The majority ethnic group controls access to jobs, promotions, housing, and social privileges, limiting opportunities for minorities.

How does the New Right (Murray) criticize Rex & Tomlinson?

They argue ethnic minorities’ own culture, such as weak parenting and poor socialisation, causes poverty and dependency, rather than society being to blame.

What limitation of Weber’s theory is highlighted by critics?

Weber explains status inequality but does not explain why some ethnicities have higher status than others.

Give an example used by Murray to explain ethnic minority disadvantage.

50% of Black Britons live in single-parent households, which he argues contributes to a culture of dependency and weaker labour market outcomes.

What are the two labour markets in Barron & Norris’ theory?

Primary sector — secure, well-paid jobs with promotion opportunities (dominated by white men); Secondary sector — low-paid, insecure jobs (overrepresented by ethnic minorities).

Why are ethnic minorities more likely to be in the secondary labour market?

Due to employer discrimination, racist beliefs, and weak legal/political protection.

How does self-employment among Pakistani and Bangladeshi groups reflect secondary sector characteristics?

Often forced into self-employment due to racism; may lack sick/holiday pay and earn lower average wages.

Give an example of power/party limiting ethnic minority employment.

Trade unions are generally white-dominated and may favour white workers over black workers.

What does the Race Relations Act 2001 aim to do?

Ensure racial discrimination is outlawed in public authorities and promote equality and good race relations.

How would functionalists explain the concentration of ethnic minorities in the secondary labour market?

Role allocation based on skills — society functions best when people with the best skills get the best jobs.

What key limitation regarding gender do Barron & Norris fail to consider?

They ignore that ethnic minority women face additional barriers in employment, beyond the secondary labour market.

What is the difference between a glass ceiling and a concrete ceiling?

Glass ceiling = breakable barrier (white women); Concrete ceiling = impenetrable barrier (ethnic minority women).

What concept does Parkin use to explain ethnic inequality?

Social closure — restricting access to privileges and opportunities.

What are exclusion strategies?

Tactics used by privileged groups to block others (e.g., immigration controls, biased recruitment).

What are usurpation strategies?

Tactics disadvantaged groups use to access privileges (e.g., anti-discrimination laws).

What does the Guardian (2018) poll show?

60% of ethnic minorities felt overlooked for promotion vs. 35% of white respondents — supporting exclusion.

Criticism of Parkin: Why do Marxists argue Parkin lacks sufficient analysis?

Because he doesn’t explain which groups end up with the power to exclude; Marxists argue power comes from class ownership.

Criticism of Parkin: Why do critics say his theory is too descriptive?

He describes exclusion/usurpation strategies but fails to explain why some succeed and others fail.

Criticism of Parkin: What do Castles & Kosack/Cox emphasise instead?

The role of capitalism in creating and maintaining ethnic inequality through divide-and-rule.

Criticism of Parkin: What is Patterson’s (Functionalist) counter-argument?

Ethnic minorities exclude themselves by failing to assimilate, rather than white society excluding them.

What are the three labour segments in Hutton’s 40/30/30 model?

40% secure tenured jobs, 30% structurally insecure jobs, 30% marginalised/unemployed.

Why are ethnic minorities often found in the bottom 30%?

Recruitment disadvantages due to lower status and power increase likelihood of insecure or part-time work.

Why are ethnic minorities underrepresented in the top 40%?

Unions providing job security are dominated by the white middle class, limiting access to protection and promotion.

How does the Sewell Report support Hutton’s theory?

It found significantly higher unemployment and underrepresentation in top job positions among Black, Pakistani, and Bangladeshi groups.

What is Murray & Herrnstein’s main argument regarding ethnic inequality?

That differences in IQ between ethnic groups (partly genetic, partly environmental) explain inequality, not structural factors.

How do Murray & Herrnstein rank ethnic groups in terms of IQ?

East Asians highest (especially verbal IQ), then white Americans, then African Americans.

What demographic concern do Murray & Herrnstein raise?

Highly educated/high-IQ women have fewer children, while lower-IQ women have more, risking a decline in national cognitive ability.

Which issues do Murray & Herrnstein link to low cognitive ability?

Crime, unemployment, welfare dependency, poor educational outcomes.

What is the main cause of ethnic inequality according to Lawrence Mead?

Cultural differences; minorities haven’t internalised Western norms like individualism.

Does Mead attribute poverty among minorities to discrimination or lack of jobs?

No; he rejects structural explanations and focuses on cultural behaviour.

Which ethnic groups does Mead specifically discuss?

Black and Hispanic Americans.

Which Western norm do ethnic minorities supposedly fail to internalise, according to Mead?

Individualism.

What does Murray identify as the main cause of the underclass?

Female-led single-parent families reliant on welfare benefits create a culture of dependency that perpetuates poverty.

Which values are passed down from underclass parents to their children according to Murray?

Fatalism, resignation, over-reliance on welfare, and acceptance of a lower social position.

How do absent fathers influence boys in underclass families?

Boys may imitate older male role models, engage in criminal behaviour, and assert masculinity through deviance

How does Sewell’s argument double up with Murray’s?

Both focus on individual and cultural factors (rather than structural causes), highlighting that underclass children are influenced by absent fathers and cultural values leading to poor behaviour.