Physical Science

atoms

basic building bocks of matter

what makes up an atom

a nucleus (which contains protons and neutrons) and electrons which orbit the nucleus

protons

positively charged

neutrons

neutral

electrons

negatively charged

atomic number

number of protons defining the element

mass number

total number of protons + neutrons

isotopes

atoms of the same atomic number with a different number of neutrons

radioactivity

the process where unstable atomic nuclei spontaneously decay, releasing energy + particles

different types of nuclear decay

atomic decay, beta decay, gamme decay

nuclear decay

the process where an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting radiation

alpha decay

The nucleus gives off 2 protons and 2 neutrons and the atom becomes a different element with a lower atomic number (by 2) and mass number (by 4).

beta decay

A neutron turns into a proton and gives off an electron (called a beta particle). The atom stays the same mass but becomes a new element with one more proton.

gamma decay

The nucleus gets rid of extra energy by emitting a gamma ray (a high-energy light wave). The element stays the same, just less excited.

Transmutation

When one element changes into another through nuclear decay.

Nuclear Reaction

Changes in the nucleus (new elements formed).

Chemical Reaction

Changes in electrons (atoms stay the same).

periodic table

catalogues all the different sorts of atoms / elements in the universe

bonding

how atoms stick together to form things

chemical reactions

a process where substances change into new substances with different properties

alkali metals

very reactive, malleable, ductile, good conductors, most reactive elements are cesium and francium, can explode when exposed to water, one loosely bound valence electron

alkaline earth metals

low electron affinities and electronegativities, two electrons in the outer shell, smaller atomic radii than alkali metals, readily form divalent cations

transition metals

fairly unreactive, malleable, high melting and boiling points, electrical conductivity, exhibit wide range or oxidation states, low ionization energies

halogens

very high electronegativities, seven valence electrons, highly reactive with alkali metals and alkaline earths, low ionization energies

halogens

very high electronegativities, seven valence electrons, highly reactive with alkali metals and alkaline earths, low ionization energies

metals, metalloids, gases, nonmetals

metals solid at room temperature (except for mercury), metalloids posses characteristics of metals and nonmetals, nonmetals are brittle solids, nonmetals gain electrons easily

ionthanides

silvery white metals that tarnish when exposed to air, high melting and boiling points, very reactive, strong reducing agents

actinides

all radioactive, highly electropositive, very dense metals with distinctive structures, combine directly with most nonmetals

noble gases

fairly nonreactive, complete valence shell, very low electronegativities, low boiling points, all gases at room temperature

group (or family)

elements in the same group have similar chemical properties and the same number of valence electrons, a column on the table

period

tells how many electron shells (energy level) the atom has, a row on the table

chemical bond

the force that holds atoms together in compounds

ionic bond

a bond where electrons are transferred from one atom to another, happens between metals and nonmetals

covalent bond

a bond where atoms share electrons, happens between nonmetals

metallic bond

a bond between metal atoms where electrons are shared in a “sea of electrons” - gives metals their unique properies like conductivity and malleability

molecule

two or more atoms chemically bonded together

compound

a substance made of two or more different elements that are chemically bonded

law of conservation of mass

matter is not created or destroyed in a chemical reaction

catalyst

a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being used up

thermodynamics

describe the transfer on energy

internal energy

total kinetic energy and potential energy of all the molecules in the system

first law of thermodynamics

the change in internal energy is equal to the change in work plus heat

4 basic properties that change thermodynamics

volume, pressure, temperature, heat

isobaric process

where pressure is held constant while heat is added or removed

iso-volumetric process

where volume is held constant, usually because the gas is in a rigid container, while heat is added or removed

isothermal process

where temperature is held constant, usually by connecting the system to a much bigger system whose temperature would take a lot of heat to change, known as a heat reservoir

adiabatic process

no heat is allowed to flow in or out of the system but the gas can be expanded or be compressed

second law of thermodynamics

heat will spontaneously flow from something hotter to something colder but never cold to hot because that leads to an increase of entropy

entropy

the inherent disorder of a system - the more disordered the system, the higher its entropy

heat flows between systems so…..

entropy increases

newtons first law of motion : inertia

an object in motion will remain in motion and an object at rest will remain at rest, unless acted upon by force. aka an objects tendency to keep doing what its doing

newtons second law

net force = mass X acceleration

Equilibrium

A state where all the forces on an object are balanced, so the object is not accelerating. The object is either at rest or moving at a constant velocity

Net force

The total force acting on an object, considering all the pushes and pulls; the sum of all forces ; If the ____ is 0, the object is in equilibrium

Tension Force

The force that is transmitted through a rope, string, or cable when it is pulled tight; always pulls in opposite directions along the rope

Gravitational force

The force of attraction between any two objects with mass.

It’s what pulls objects toward each other—like how the Earth pulls you down, keeping you on the ground.

Newtons third law

for every actopm there’s an equal. but opposite reaction; if you exert force on an object, it exerts an equal force back on you

sound

produced when the vibrations of an object travel through a solid, liquid, or gas

characteristics of sound

loudness, pitch, timbre

loudness

energy produced by sound waves

pitch

depends on how many vibrations/waves take place in each second

timbre

depends of wave shape + allows to distinguish sounds even with the same loudness

echo

an acoustic phenomenon that occurs when a soundwave hits an obstacle + is reflected back

magnetism

the property sum objects have that attracts other metallic elements (all matter has an electric charge)

electricity

a physical phenomenon that occurs when there is a movement of electrical charges in objects

electricity can be produced by

fossil fuels, wind, sun, water or batteries

static electricity

imbalance of positive and negative charges between 2 objects, created when objects that have atoms with different electrical charges rub against eachother

when 2 atoms have the same charge ….

they move away or repel each other (explains shocks)

dynamic electricity

flowing of electric charge, used from natural sources

circuit

used in order for electrical charges to flow continuously, a closed path in which electrical charges travel along

conductive materials

allows electrical charges to flow through them; the best materials to add to an electrical circuit (metals)

insulating materials

do not allow electric charges to flow through them; used to protect us from electricity (rubber)

electromagnetism

where electric currants produce a magnetic field, a relationship between electricity and magnetism

light

a form of energy that travels in waves and can move through empty space

the speed of light

a unit of measurement that calculates the distance between 2 very different points. travels in a straight line at 186,000 mps.

reflection

occurs when light rays (or incident rays) collide with an object and bounces off

specular reflection

when every incident ray is reflected in the same direction (mirror)

diffuse reflection

when rays are reflected in different directions (off a ball)

refraction

when light rays pass from one medium to another + change their speed + direction (magnifying glass)

spiral galaxies

flat, rotating disks of stars, broad, made of gas and dust, a central bulge of older, redder stars, sometimes with a long cylindrical or bar of stars + a huge extended halo of older stars

eddy

a current flowing in the opposite direction off a main current

elliptical galaxies

characterized by a lack of gas and dust in them, some are spiracle, others are elongated, tend to have no overall structure, they are puffy + range in size; populated with older stars

peculiar galaxies

all due to collisions between galaxies

irregular galaxies

No clear shape—chaotic appearance. can often be the result of galaxy collisions or gravitational interactions. They tend to be small

solar system

a vast + intricate network of celestial bodies that orbit around our sun

the sun

a star the provides life and energy which are essential for life on earth

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order of planets : Mercury – Venus – Earth – Mars – Jupiter – Saturn – Uranus – Neptune

astroid belt

located between Mars + Jupiter, contains countless rocky remnants from the solar systems formation

galaxies

colossal systems comprising billions of stars each bound together by gravity

milky way

our home galaxy, a spiral galaxy that houses our solar system on one of its outer arms

Spectrum

the result when you divide the incoming light from an object to individual colors or wavelengths. This reveals a vast amount of physical data about an object

stars

hot, dense, balls of gas which give off a continuous spectrim; emitting light at all wavelengths

spectra of stars

depends on the temperature and elements in their atmosphere

luminosity

by using distance to calculate hoe much energy a star is giving off; depends on the stars size + temperature

HR diagram

a graph that plots a stars luminosity vs its temperature

white dwarfs

stars that are eventually running out og hydrogen fuel, white/blue and small

red giants

Medium-sized stars (like the Sun) that have swollen up late in their life as they run low on hydrogen fuel. Cooler surface (so they look red), but very bright because of their huge size.

Red Supergiants

Massive stars that have expanded enormously near the end of their life cycle. Some of the largest stars in the universe—can be hundreds of times bigger than the Sun. Cool surface (red), but extremely bright because of their size.

Blue Supergiants

Very massive, extremely hot stars still in an active stage of their life. Larger than the Sun, but not as puffed-up as red supergiants.Very hot surface, giving them a blue color.

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Earth layer orders, crust, mantle, outercore, innercore