Psyc 3980 - Midterm

Empiricism

Using evidence from the senses or from instruments that assist with sense, as the basis for conclusions

Theory-Data Cycle

Theory

A set of statements - as simple as possible - that describes general principles about how variables relate to one another

Hypothesis

The specific outcome the researcher will observe in a study if the theory is accurate

Falsifiability

A feature of a scientific theory, in which it is possible to collect data that will indicate that the theory is wrong

Merton’s Scientific Norms

• Universalism

• Communality

• Disinterestedness

• Organized skepticism

Universalism

Scientific claims are evaluated according to their merit, independent of the researcher’s credentials or reputation. The same pre-established criteria apply to all scientists and all research

Communality

Scientific knowledge is created by a community and its findings belong to the community

Disinterestedness

Scientists strive to discover the truth, whatever it is; they are not swayed by conviction, idealism, politics, or profit

Organized skepticism

Scientists question everything, including their own theories, widely accepted ideas, and “ancient wisdom”

Applied research

Done with a practical problem in mind and the researchers conduct their work in a local, real-world context

• Ex. If a school district’s new method of teaching language arts is working better than the former one. The efficacy of a treatment for depression in a sample of trauma survivors

Basic research

To enhance the general body of knowledge rather than to address a specific, practical problem

• Ex. Might want to understand the structure of the visual system, the capacity of human memory, the motivations of a depressed person

Translational research

Use of lessons from basic research to develop and test applications

• Ex. Basic research on the biochemistry of cell membranes might be translated into a new drug for schizophrenia. How mindfulness changes people’s patterns of attention might be translated into a study skills intervention

Interrelationship of the three types of research

_________ researchers may not have an applied context in mind.

Basic

_________ researchers may be less familiar with basic theories and principles.

Applied

__________ researchers attempt to translate the findings of basic research into applied areas.

Translational

Journal

A monthly or quarterly periodical containing peer-reviewed articles on a specific academic discipline or subdiscipline, written for a scholarly audience

Journalism

News and commentary published or broadcast in the popular media and produced for a general audience

Identify each activity as an example of either producing or consuming research

• Creating and testing a hypothesis on sexuality in teenagers

  • Producing research

• Using research findings to update patients treatment plans

  • Consuming research

• Using previous studies to create a new study that analyzes all of those previous findings

  • Producing research

• Reporting current trends in biology research in a news article

  • Consuming research

Keyanna is thinking of marketing consulting as a potential future career. Identify each task associated with consulting as either producing research or consuming research.

• Collect and analyze data, and present the results to clients

  • Producing research

• Test different marketing strategies to identify the best one

  • Producing research

• Keep up to date on current product trends

  • Consuming research

• Look at analyses conducted by other firms, and inform clients of the findings

  • Consuming research

Which of the following jobs most likely involves producer-ofresearch skills rather than consumer-of-research skills?

University professor

As a true empiricist, one should:

Base one’s conclusions on direct observations

A statement, or set of statements, that describes general principles about how variables relate to one another is a(n) _________.

Theory

Why is publication an important part of the research process?

Because when a study is published, other scientists can verify or challenge it, making science self-correcting

Which of the following research questions best illustrates an example of basic research?

Can 2-month-old human infants tell the difference between four objects and six objects?

Probabilistic

The findings do not explain all cases all of the time

Confound

A potential alternative explanation for a research finding; a threat to internal validity

Confederate

An actor who is directed by the researcher to play a specific role in a research study

Five ways in which intuition is biased:

1. Being swayed by a good story

2. Being persuaded by what comes easily to mind

3. To think about what we cannot see

4. Focusing on the evidence we like best

5. Biased about being biased

Availability heuristic

A bias in intuition, in which people incorrectly estimate the frequency of something, relying predominantly on instances that easily come to mind rather than using all possible evidence in evaluating a conclusion

Present/present bias

A bias in intuition, in which people incorrectly estimate the relationship between an event and its outcome, focusing on times the event and outcome are present, while failing to consider evidence that is absent and harder to notice

Confirmation bias

The tendency to consider only the evidence that supports a hypothesis, including asking only the questions that will lead to the expected answer

Bias blind spot

The tendency for people to think that compared to others, they themselves are less likely to engage in biased reasoning

Sources of information

What two guiding questions can help you read any academic research source?

• What is the argument?

• What is the evidence?

Empirical journal article

A scholarly article that reports for the first time the results of a research study

Review journal article

An article summarizing all the studies that have been published in one research area

Effect size

The magnitude, or strength, of a relationship between two or more variables

Disinformation

A news story, photo, or video deliberately created to be false or misleading

Meta-analysis

A way of mathematically averaging the effect sizes of all the studies that have tested the same variables to see what conclusion that whole body of evidence supports

Destiny concluded that her new white noise machine helped her fall asleep last night. She based this conclusion on personal experience, which might have confounds. In this context, a confound means:

Another thing might have also occurred last night to help Destiny fall asleep

What does it mean to say that research results are probabilistic?

Research conclusions explain a certain proportion of possible cases but may not explain all

After two students from his school commit suicide, Marcelino concludes that the most likely cause of death in teenagers is suicide. In fact, suicide is not the most likely cause of death in teens. What happened?

Marcelino was probably influenced by the availability heuristic; he was too influenced by cases that came easily to mind

When is it a good idea to base conclusions on the advice of authorities?

When authorities base their advice on research that systematically and objectively compares different conditions

Which of the following is the most reliable source for reading the details of a psychological study?

Scientific journals

In reading an empirical journal article, what two questions should you be asking as you read?

What is the argument? What is the evidence to support the argument?

Variable

An attribute that varies, having at least two levels, or values

Level

One of the possible variations, or values, of a varibale

Constant

An attribute that could potentially vary but that has only one level in the study question

Measured variable

A variable in a study whose levels (values) are observed and recorded

Manipulated variable

A variable in an experiment that a researcher controls, such as by assigning participants to its different levels (values)

Construct

A variable of interest, stated at an abstract level, usually defined as part of a formal statement of a psychological theory

Conceptual variable

A variable of interest

Operational definition

The specific way in which a concept of interest is measured or manipulated as a variable in a study

Operational variable

The specific way in which a concept of interest is measured of manipulated as a variable in a study

Operationalize

To turn a conceptual definition of a variable into a specific measured variable or manipulated variable in order to conduct a research study

Frequency claim

A claim that describes a particular rate or degree of a single variable

Association claim

A claim about two variables, in which the value (level) of one variable is said to vary systematically with the value of another variable

Correlate

To occur or vary together systematically, as in the case of two variables

Correlational study

A study that includes two or more variables, in which all of the variables are measured; can support an association claim

Positive association

An association in which high levels of one variable go with high levels of the other variable, and low levels of one variable go with low levels of the other variable

Negative association

An association in which high levels of one variable go with low levels of the other variable, and vice versa

Zero association

A lack of systemic association between two variables

Casual claim

A claim arguing that a specific change in one variable is responsible for influencing the value of another variable

Validity

The appropriateness of a conclusion or decision

Construct validity

An indication of how well a variable was measured or manipulated in a study

Generalizability

The extent to which the subjects in a study represent the populations they are intended to represent; how well the settings in a study represent other settings or contexts

External validity

An indication of how well the results of a study generalize to, or represent, individuals or contexts besides those in the study itself

Statistical validity

The extent to which statistical conclusions derived from a study are accurate and reasonable

Point estimate

A single estimate of some population value

Confidence interval (CI)

A given range indicated by a lower and upper value that is designed to capture the population value for some point estimate

Covariance

The degree to which two variables go together

Temporal precedence

One of three criteria for establishing a casual claim, stating that the proposed casual variable comes first in time, before the proposed outcome variable

Internal validity

One of three criteria for establishing a casual claim; a study’s ability to rule out alternative explanations for a casual relationship between two variables

Experiment

A study in which at least one variable is manipulated and another is measured

Independent variable

A variable that is manipulated

Dependent variable

The variable that is measured

Most important validity in frequency claims?

External validity

Most important validity in association claims?

Construct and statistical validities

Which of the following variables are manipulated, rather than measured? (Could be more than one.)

• Amount of aspirin a researcher gives a person to take, either 325 mg or 500 mg.

• Type of praise a researcher uses in groups of dogs: verbal praise or a clicking sound paired with treats.

Which of the following headlines is an association claim?

Workaholism is tied to psychiatric disorders

Which of the following headlines is a frequency claim?

Eighty percent of women feel dissatisfied with how their bodies loo

Which of the following headlines is a causal claim?

Taking a deep breath helps minimize high blood pressure, anxiety, and depression

Which validity would you be interrogating by asking: How well did the researchers measure sensitivity to tastes in this study?

Construct validity

Which validity would you be interrogating by asking: How did the researchers get their sample of people for this survey?

External validity

In most experiments, trade-offs are made between validities because it is not possible to achieve all four at once. What is the most common trade- off?

Internal and external validity

Self-report measure

A method of measuring a variable in which people answer questions about themselves in a questionnaire or interview

Observational measure

A method of measuring a variable by recording observable behaviors or physical traces of behaviors

Physiological measure

A method of measuring a variable by recording biological data

Categorical variable

A variable whose levels are categories

• Ex. male and female

Quantitative variable

A variable whose values can be recorded as meaningful numbers

Ordinal scale

A quantitative measurement scale whose levels represent a ranked order, and in which distances between levels are not equal

Interval scale

A quantitative measurement scale that has no “true zero”, and in which the numerals represent equal intervals between levels

Ratio scale

A quantitative measurement in which the numerals have equal intervals and the value of zero truly means “none” of the variable being measured

Reliability

The consistency of the results of a measure

Test-retest reliability

The consistency in results every time a measure is used

Interrater reliability

The degree to which two or more coders or observers give consistent rating of a set of targets

Internal reliability

In a measure that contains several items, the consistency in a pattern of answers, no matter how a question is phrases

Correlation coefficient r

A single number, ranging from -1.0 to 1.0, that indicates the strength and direction of an association between two variables