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3 Main Parts of an Argument (Toulmin)
Claim, Grounds, Warrants
3 Forms of Appeals
Logos (logic), Ethos (ethical), pathos (emotional).
Syllogism
A logical form of reasoning with a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion.
Deductive Reasoning
analysis the moves from the general to the particular
Inductive Reasoning
(scientific) goes from the particular to the general
Grounds
the basis or justification of a claim
Non sequitor
it does not follow
Appeal to Authority
authority does not equal evidence
Appeal to Celebrity
form of appeal to authority where celebrity is substituted for evidence
Argumentum ad Hominem
personal attack (to or towards the man)
Begging the Question
the conclusion occurs within the premise. Essentially, the conclusion is contained in some way within the argument.
Red Herring
a diversionary argument
The Bandwagon Fallacy
“everyone is doing it” – implying that you should do it to.
Poisoning the Well
Trying to discredit an opponent before his argument is even considered
Slippery Slope
the first step will inevitably lead to disaster. An argument that proceeds from A to Z skipping every possible step in between.
False Analogy
An argument of comparison asserting that A equals B when there are significant or relevant differences.
Argumentum ad Misiercordum
appeal to misery. An emotional appeal based on need.
Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc
A cause and effect fallacy where there is an error in reasoning between an event and its cause
Hasty Generalization
stereotyping. Judgment of a person or group based on a small survey group.
Argument from Ignorance
using what we DO NOT KNOW - or cannot know- as evidence.
False Dichotomy
A fallacy of either/or reasoning. Offering two choices where there are, in fact, other options.
Equivocation
A fallacy of Ambiguity. Giving utterance to two different meanings at the same time.
Many Questions
“loaded question” that contains a false or disputed premise within its claim.
Straw Man Fallacy
ascribing a position to an opponent that he does not hold and then defeating that position giving the illusion of having defeated the opponent,
Oversimplification
taking a complex issue or argument and watering it down ignoring important and relevant subtleties.
Argumentum ad Nazium
criticizing a person or groups position by comparing them to Hitler or the Nazi Party.
Logical Fallacy
a common error in reasoning.
Reductio ad Absurdam
a reduction to an absurdity; refuting a proposition by demonstrating the inevitably absurd conclusion to which it logically leads.
Appeal to Fear
an emotional appeal where fear is used to motivate action