UNIT 4 PYSCHOLOGY STUDY GUIDE

Motivation (Module 37)

The process that activates, directs, and sustains behavior toward goals.

Instinct / Evolutionary Theory (Module 37)

Behavior results from unlearned, species-specific instincts aiding survival.

Drive-Reduction Theory (Module 37)

Needs create internal drives that motivate behavior to restore homeostasis.

Homeostasis (Module 37)

The body’s tendency to maintain internal balance.

Incentive Theory (Module 37)

External rewards or punishments pull behavior.

Arousal Theory (Module 37)

People seek an optimal level of stimulation; too little = bored, too much = stressed.

Yerkes–Dodson Law (Module 37)

Moderate arousal produces optimal performance.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Module 37)

Physiological

Self-Actualization (Module 37)

Motivation to fulfill one’s potential after basic needs are met.

Self-Transcendence (Module 37)

Seeking meaning and purpose beyond self-interest.

Drive (Module 37)

Internal state of tension motivating behavior.

Incentive (Module 37)

External stimulus motivating behavior.

Optimal Arousal (Module 37)

The ideal stimulation level for best performance.

Hunger Motivation (Module 38)

Biological and psychological processes initiating eating behavior.

Hypothalamus (Module 38)

Brain region controlling hunger and satiety.

Lateral Hypothalamus (Module 38)

“Start-eating” center; stimulation triggers hunger.

Ventromedial Hypothalamus (Module 38)

“Stop-eating” center; stimulation suppresses hunger.

Glucose (Module 38)

Blood sugar; low levels trigger hunger.

Insulin (Module 38)

Hormone helping cells absorb glucose.

Ghrelin (Module 38)

Hormone from the stomach that increases hunger.

Leptin (Module 38)

Hormone from fat cells that decreases hunger.

PYY (Module 38)

Digestive hormone signaling fullness.

Set Point (Module 38)

Stable body-weight range regulated by metabolism.

Basal Metabolic Rate (Module 38)

Energy the body uses at rest.

Unit Bias (Module 38)

Larger portions increase consumption.

Social Facilitation (Eating) (Module 38)

Eating more in the presence of others.

Cultural Influences on Eating (Module 38)

Culture shapes what, when, and how much we eat.

Emotion (Module 40)

A response involving physiological arousal, expressive behavior, and conscious experience.

James–Lange Theory (Module 40)

Emotion follows physiological arousal.

Cannon–Bard Theory (Module 40)

Emotion and physiological arousal occur simultaneously.

Schachter–Singer Two-Factor Theory (Module 40)

Emotion = physiological arousal + cognitive label.

Zajonc / LeDoux Theory (Module 40)

Some emotions occur instantly without conscious thought.

Lazarus Theory (Module 40)

Cognitive appraisal (even unconscious) defines emotion.

Cognitive Appraisal (Module 40)

Interpretation of a stimulus that determines emotion.

Spillover Effect (Module 40)

Arousal from one event intensifies emotion in another.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) (Module 41)

Controls physiological arousal in emotion.

Sympathetic Nervous System (Module 41)

Activates “fight-or-flight” responses.

Parasympathetic Nervous System (Module 41)

Calms the body after arousal.

Amygdala (Module 41)

Processes fear and aggression.

Frontal Lobes and Emotion (Module 41)

Left = positive; right = negative emotions.

Polygraph (Module 41)

Measures physiological arousal to detect deception; unreliable.

Physiological Arousal (Module 41)

Body’s physical reactions during emotion.

Expressed Emotion (Module 42)

Observable facial and behavioral signs of emotion.

Paul Ekman (Module 42)

Identified six universal facial expressions.

Universal Emotions (Module 42)

Happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust, surprise.

Display Rules (Module 42)

Cultural norms for expressing emotions.

Facial Feedback Effect (Module 42)

Facial expressions influence emotional experience.

Behavioral Feedback Effect (Module 42)

Body posture/movement affect mood.

Gender Differences in Emotion (Module 42)

Women generally more expressive and empathetic.

Cultural Differences in Emotion (Module 42)

Expression rules vary across cultures.

Introverts vs Extroverts (Module 42)

Introverts better at reading emotions; extroverts easier to read.

Personality (Module 55)

Characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

Psychoanalytic Theory (Module 55)

Personality arises from unconscious conflicts among id, ego, and superego.

Id (Module 55)

Primitive impulses seeking immediate pleasure (pleasure principle).

Ego (Module 55)

Rational mediator using the reality principle.

Superego (Module 55)

Internalized moral standards; strives for perfection.

Defense Mechanisms (Module 55)

Unconscious tactics that protect the ego from anxiety.

Repression (Module 55)

Forcing distressing thoughts into the unconscious.

Regression (Module 55)

Reverting to earlier behaviors.

Reaction Formation (Module 55)

Acting opposite to true feelings.

Projection (Module 55)

Attributing one’s impulses to others.

Rationalization (Module 55)

Justifying behavior with acceptable excuses.

Displacement (Module 55)

Redirecting anger toward a safer target.

Sublimation (Module 55)

Channeling impulses into socially acceptable outlets.

Denial (Module 55)

Refusing to accept reality.

Identification (Module 55)

Adopting characteristics of another person to reduce anxiety.

Carl Jung (Module 56)

Collective unconscious and archetypes; neo-Freudian.

Alfred Adler (Module 56)

Inferiority complex; striving for superiority.

Karen Horney (Module 56)

Criticized Freud; emphasized social/cultural influences and basic anxiety.

Humanistic Perspective (Module 57)

Emphasizes personal growth and free will.

Abraham Maslow (Personality) (Module 57)

Self-actualization and hierarchy of needs.

Carl Rogers (Module 57)

Person-centered theory; genuineness, acceptance, empathy.

Unconditional Positive Regard (Module 57)

Accepting others without judgment.

Self-Concept (Module 57)

Overall perception of one’s identity.

Trait Theory (Module 58)

Personality consists of stable, measurable traits.

Gordon Allport (Module 58)

Identified cardinal, central, and secondary traits.

Hans & Sybil Eysenck (Module 58)

Personality dimensions: extraversion–introversion and stability–instability.

Paul Costa & Robert McCrae (Module 58)

Developed the Big Five model (OCEAN).

Big Five Traits (Module 58)

Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

Empirically Derived Test (Module 59)

Created by statistically selecting items that distinguish groups (e.g., MMPI).

MMPI (Module 59)

Objective test measuring personality traits; clinically used.

Projective Test (Module 59)

Uses ambiguous stimuli to uncover unconscious motives (e.g., Rorschach, TAT).

Rorschach Inkblot Test (Module 59)

Describing inkblots reveals inner thoughts; criticized for low reliability/validity.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) (Module 59)

Storytelling about ambiguous pictures reveals motives.

Social-Cognitive Theory (Module 59)

Behavior = interaction of traits, thinking, and environment.

Albert Bandura (Module 59)

Proposed reciprocal determinism and self-efficacy.

Reciprocal Determinism (Module 59)

Interaction of behavior, cognition, and environment.

Self-Efficacy (Module 59)

Belief in one’s ability to succeed.

Julian Rotter (Module 59)

Locus of control concept.

Internal Locus of Control (Module 59)

Belief you control your fate.

External Locus of Control (Module 59)

Belief external forces control outcomes.