20th Century European History - Final Review

NSDAP/National Socialist Party/Nazi Party

The NSDAP was the far-right political party led by Adolf Hitler that rose to power in Germany during the interwar period. Emerging out of post-World War I instability, it capitalized on economic crisis, nationalism, and resentment toward the Treaty of Versailles. In the broader context of 20th-century Europe, the party facilitated the collapse of Weimar democracy, contributed to the outbreak of World War II, and drove fascist ideology across the continent. Its legacy is one of totalitarianism, genocide, and a permanent warning about the dangers of extremist mass-political movements.

Brown Shirts (SA)

The SA was the paramilitary wing of the Nazi Party, used to intimidate political opponents and project street-level power during the party's rise in the 1920s and early 1930s. Their activities helped destabilize Weimar politics and normalize political violence in Germany. In European history, the SA represents the role of extra-legal militias in enabling fascist takeovers. Their legacy is tied to the creation of a climate of fear that paved the way for dictatorship, as well as being an early example of how paramilitary groups can shape modern authoritarian movements.

Beer Hall Putsch (1923)

The Beer Hall Putsch was Hitler's failed attempt to overthrow the Bavarian government and seize national power, resulting in his arrest and imprisonment. Its historical significance lies in how it transformed Hitler from a fringe agitator into a nationally known figure and convinced him to pursue power through legal political means. In the context of 20th-century Europe, it reflects the instability of the postwar order and the presence of radical anti-democratic forces. Its legacy is that it became a foundational myth for the Nazi movement and a warning about early attempts to overthrow fragile democracies.

Enabling Act (1933)

The Enabling Act gave Hitler's cabinet the power to pass laws without parliamentary approval, effectively dismantling the Weimar Republic and establishing a legal dictatorship. It arose from the Reichstag Fire crisis and the Nazis' manipulation of fear, violence, and political fragmentation. In a European context, it illustrates how authoritarian regimes could emerge through legal frameworks rather than solely through force. Its legacy is a demonstration of how democratic institutions can be hollowed out from within, influencing modern discussions about constitutional safeguards against authoritarianism.

Dachau

Dachau, established in 1933, was the first Nazi concentration camp and became a model for the expanding camp system. Initially used to imprison political opponents, it grew into a site of forced labor, terror, and systematic brutality. Within 20th-century Europe, Dachau symbolizes the institutionalization of state repression and the evolution of Nazi terror into mass murder. Its legacy is inseparable from the Holocaust and serves as a central memorial site for education about totalitarian violence and human rights violations.

Volksgemeinschaft ("national community")

Volksgemeinschaft was a key ideological concept of Nazism, proposing a unified, racially pure German society in which class divisions were erased in favor of racial solidarity. It gained traction during a time of social fragmentation and economic crisis, offering a seductive promise of unity. In the European context, it reflects the broader rise of exclusionary nationalisms and the appeal of authoritarian social engineering. Its legacy is deeply negative, as it justified racial persecution, the elimination of "undesirables," and total state control over private and public life.

Lebensraum

Lebensraum, meaning "living space," was the Nazi belief that Germany needed territorial expansion—particularly eastward—to secure resources and sustain a racially defined "Aryan" nation. It drew from earlier European imperialist ideas but radicalized them into a genocidal territorial program. In 20th-century Europe, Lebensraum drove Germany's invasion of Poland and the Soviet Union, reshaping the map and escalating the war into a continental conflict. Its legacy is tied to war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and the catastrophic human consequences of expansionist ideology.

Concentration Camps

Concentration camps were a system of detention, forced labor, and extermination implemented by Nazi Germany, beginning with political prisoners and later extending to Jews, Roma, LGBTQ+ individuals, and others. They emerged from earlier wartime and colonial precedents but became unprecedented in scale and brutality during the Holocaust. In European history, they represent the extreme potential of modern bureaucratic states to organize mass violence. Their legacy is central to global memory of the 20th century, shaping human rights law, genocide studies, and postwar commitments to "never again."

Law for the Prevention of Offspring with Hereditary Disease (1933)

This law mandated the forced sterilization of individuals deemed to have hereditary illnesses, institutionalizing Nazi eugenics and paving the way for more radical racial policies. It reflected the era's broader misuse of scientific language to justify discriminatory state interventions. In the context of 20th-century Europe, it shows how pseudo-scientific racism became embedded in state policy and helped normalize later acts of mass violence. Its legacy includes international condemnation and postwar reforms in medical ethics and human rights.

Nuremberg Laws (1935)

The Nuremberg Laws stripped Jews of citizenship and prohibited marriages or relations between Jews and "Aryan" Germans, creating a legal foundation for racial discrimination. They grew out of escalating antisemitic policy and codified Nazi racial ideology into the structure of the state. Across Europe, these laws foreshadowed the intensification of persecution and the continent-wide campaign of genocide during World War II. Their legacy informs modern anti-discrimination laws and serves as a stark reminder of how legal systems can be weaponized to marginalize and destroy entire populations.

Nomenklatura

The nomenklatura system in the Soviet Union referred to the list of key positions and the elites approved by the Communist Party to fill them, ensuring political loyalty throughout the state apparatus. Historically, it emerged as the USSR became a centralized, bureaucratic dictatorship under Lenin and especially Stalin. In 20th-century Europe, the nomenklatura illustrates how communist regimes created entrenched ruling classes despite the rhetoric of equality. Its legacy includes deep distrust of political bureaucracy in post-Soviet states and debates about how party-controlled appointments shaped governance and economic stagnation.

Red Army

The Red Army was the military force of the Soviet Union, created during the Russian Civil War and later becoming one of the most powerful armies in the world. It played a decisive role in defeating Nazi Germany, especially on the Eastern Front, where the majority of WWII's casualties occurred. In the context of 20th-century Europe, the Red Army shaped the outcome of the war and the postwar division of Europe into Western and Soviet spheres. Its legacy includes both the liberation of Eastern Europe from Nazism and the subsequent imposition of Soviet-controlled communist regimes, making it a symbol of both resistance and oppression depending on perspective.

Cheka (secret police)

The Cheka was the first Soviet secret police organization, created in 1917 to suppress counterrevolutionaries during the Russian Civil War. Its violent methods—summary executions, mass arrests, and surveillance—became foundational to the Soviet system. In 20th-century Europe, the Cheka represents the rise of authoritarian state security apparatuses and the normalization of political repression under communist regimes. Its legacy is the blueprint it provided for later organizations like the NKVD and KGB, shaping how the Soviet Union controlled dissent for decades.

Comintern

The Comintern, founded in 1919, was an international communist organization designed to coordinate revolutionary movements worldwide under Soviet leadership. It operated during a period when many Europeans feared communist uprisings in the aftermath of World War I and the Russian Revolution. Throughout 20th-century Europe, the Comintern influenced labor movements, anti-fascist coalitions, and political parties, fueling both hopes for global revolution and fears of Soviet subversion. Its legacy lies in its role in shaping communist activism and establishing Moscow's authority over foreign communist parties.

Joseph Stalin

Joseph Stalin became the leader of the Soviet Union after Lenin's death and ruled as a totalitarian dictator from the late 1920s until 1953. His policies of rapid industrialization, collectivization, political purges, and repression transformed the USSR into a major world power at enormous human cost. In 20th-century Europe, Stalin shaped the outcome of World War II, the postwar division of Europe, and the emergence of the Cold War. His legacy remains deeply controversial, associated with industrial modernization on one hand and mass terror, famine, and gulags on the other.

Five-Year Plans

The Five-Year Plans were Soviet economic programs launched under Stalin in 1928 to rapidly industrialize the USSR through state-directed quotas. They were implemented in a period when many believed planned economies could surpass capitalist models and strengthen national power. In European history, these plans influenced debates about modernity and industrial competition, especially as the USSR emerged as a formidable military force by WWII. Their legacy includes both the creation of a powerful industrial base and the human suffering caused by forced labor, shortages, and political coercion.

Collectivization

Collectivization was the forced consolidation of individual peasant farms into large state-run or cooperative farms, initiated by Stalin in the late 1920s. It aimed to increase agricultural output and eliminate private property in the countryside, but resulted in widespread famine—especially in Ukraine—and millions of deaths. In 20th-century Europe, collectivization symbolized the extreme measures totalitarian states took to reshape society and reject traditional economic structures. Its legacy is one of devastation, contributing to lasting demographic and cultural scars in Eastern Europe and shaping post-Soviet attitudes toward state power.

Kulaks

Kulaks were relatively wealthier peasants who were targeted during collectivization as enemies of the state, accused of resisting socialist reforms. The Soviet government labeled them a class threat, leading to deportations, executions, and the destruction of rural leadership. Their persecution highlights how 20th-century European dictatorships weaponized class categories for political goals. The legacy of the kulaks lies in how their elimination worsened famine, destabilized agriculture, and exposed the brutality of ideological purity campaigns.

Spanish Civil War

The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) was a conflict between the left-wing Republican government and the right-wing Nationalists under Francisco Franco. It became a symbolic battleground of the 20th century, attracting international volunteers and intervention from fascist Italy, Nazi Germany, and the Soviet Union. In European history, the war served as a prelude to World War II, testing new military technologies and deepening ideological divides between fascism, communism, and democracy. Its legacy includes the long dictatorship that followed, as well as its role in shaping antifascist and nationalist memory throughout Europe.

Popular Front (1936-1938)

The Popular Front was a coalition of left-wing parties in France formed to defend democracy against the rising threat of fascism. Emerging during widespread economic insecurity and political polarization, it represented an attempt at democratic reform and anti-fascist unity. In the broader European context, the Popular Front symbolized the struggle of centrist and leftist forces to resist authoritarianism before WWII. Its legacy includes social reforms such as paid vacations and labor protections, as well as the lesson that fragile alliances often struggled to withstand extreme political pressures.

Anschluss ("union")

Anschluss refers to the 1938 annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany, carried out under threat and greeted with mixed enthusiasm and coercion. It was part of Hitler's expansionist agenda, justified by claims of unifying all ethnic Germans. In European terms, the Anschluss demonstrated the failures of the interwar international system and encouraged further Nazi aggression. Its legacy is a stark example of how nationalism and appeasement contributed to continental destabilization on the eve of World War II.

Blitzkreig

Blitzkrieg, or "lightning war," was a German military strategy emphasizing rapid, coordinated attacks using tanks, aircraft, and mechanized infantry. Developed in response to the stalemated trench warfare of WWI, it allowed Germany to conquer large parts of Europe with unprecedented speed in 1939-1941. In 20th-century Europe, Blitzkrieg reshaped warfare, forcing other nations to adopt new doctrines and accelerating the mechanization of militaries. Its legacy endures in modern combined-arms warfare and remains a symbol of early German dominance during WWII.

Appeasement

Appeasement refers to the policy—most associated with British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain—of conceding to Hitler's demands in hopes of avoiding war. It emerged from the trauma of WWI, economic weakness, and political divisions that limited the willingness of European democracies to confront aggression. In European history, appeasement is widely seen as having emboldened Nazi expansion and undermined collective security. Its legacy is a cautionary principle in diplomacy, often invoked when debating how democracies should respond to authoritarian threats.

Nazi-Soviet Pact

The Nazi-Soviet Pact, signed in 1939, was a non-aggression agreement between Germany and the Soviet Union, which secretly divided Eastern Europe into spheres of influence. It shocked the world because it united two ideological enemies at a moment when tensions in Europe were escalating. The pact facilitated the start of WWII by enabling Germany to invade Poland without fear of Soviet intervention. Its legacy includes the temporary cooperation between two totalitarian regimes and the long-lasting political impact on Eastern European territories caught between them.

Maginot Line

The Maginot Line was a complex system of French fortifications built after WWI to prevent another German invasion. It reflected interwar military thinking that emphasized static defense based on the horrors of trench warfare. In 20th-century Europe, the Maginot Line became a symbol of outdated strategy, as Germany bypassed it during its 1940 offensive using mechanized tactics. Its legacy is a powerful metaphor for misplaced security assumptions and the difficulty of preparing for new forms of warfare.

"Phony war" / drole de guerre

The "phony war" refers to the early period of WWII (September 1939-April 1940) when Britain and France were formally at war with Germany, but no major fighting occurred on the Western Front. This pause reflected political caution, military unpreparedness, and uncertainty about how to confront Germany's new tactics. In the European context, the phony war exposed weaknesses in Allied strategy and gave Germany time to prepare its invasion of Western Europe. Its legacy lies in its illustration of how hesitation and strategic miscalculation affected early WWII outcomes.

Battle of Britain

The Battle of Britain (1940) was the aerial conflict between Nazi Germany and the United Kingdom, marking the first major military campaign fought entirely in the air. Occurring after the fall of France, it represented a crucial moment when Britain stood alone against German expansion. In European history, the battle prevented a German invasion and sustained Allied resistance, altering the trajectory of the war. Its legacy includes the mythos of the "Few," the importance of radar and air supremacy, and the demonstration that Hitler's advance could be stopped.

Cold War

The Cold War was the geopolitical rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union from the late 1940s to 1991, shaping European politics, ideology, and military alliances. Emerging from the collapse of Nazi Germany and competing visions for postwar Europe, it resulted in the division of Europe into capitalist and communist blocs. Across the 20th century, it influenced everything from nuclear strategy to decolonization and economic development. Its legacy includes NATO, the European Union's origins, and the enduring political and cultural impact of ideological confrontation.

Atlantic Charter

The Atlantic Charter (1941) was a joint declaration by Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill outlining Allied war aims and principles for the postwar world, including self-determination, free trade, and international cooperation. Created while much of Europe was under Axis control, it signaled a commitment to a liberal international order. In the European context, the charter shaped postwar reconstruction and inspired resistance movements and decolonization efforts. Its legacy is most visible in the formation of the United Nations and the framework for postwar global diplomacy.

Marshall Plan

The Marshall Plan (1947) was an American economic aid program designed to rebuild European economies after WWII and prevent the spread of communism by stabilizing democratic governments. It emerged during early Cold War tensions when the U.S. sought to strengthen Western Europe both economically and politically. In European history, the plan accelerated recovery, deepened transatlantic ties, and helped solidify the division between Western Europe and the Soviet-dominated East. Its legacy includes long-term economic integration, the strengthening of Western democracies, and the foundations of modern European cooperation.

Truman Doctrine

The Truman Doctrine, announced in 1947, committed the United States to supporting countries threatened by communism, beginning with aid to Greece and Turkey. It emerged from rising postwar tensions and fears of Soviet expansion into weakened European states. In the context of 20th-century Europe, it marked the beginning of the Cold War and the division of the continent into opposing ideological blocs. Its legacy is the long-term U.S. policy of containment, which shaped European geopolitics for decades.

Why did the Soviets and the Western Allies adopt different policies for governing post-war Germany? What were those different policies?

The Soviets and Western Allies adopted different policies because they had conflicting ideological goals and security concerns after World War II. The Western Allies aimed to rebuild Germany economically and politically as a stable democratic state through policies like the Marshall Plan, while the Soviets sought to keep Germany weak and use their zone for security and socialist control through reparations and centralized communist governance.

Berlin Blockade & Airlift

The Berlin Blockade (1948-1949) was the Soviet attempt to cut off all land access to West Berlin in retaliation for Western economic reforms and growing cooperation. The Western Allies responded with the Berlin Airlift, supplying the city entirely by air for nearly a year, preventing Soviet takeover. In 20th-century Europe, the crisis hardened the division of Germany and demonstrated that the Cold War would be fought through political pressure rather than direct military confrontation. Its legacy includes the creation of NATO, the establishment of West and East Germany, and the cementing of Berlin as a focal point of Cold War tensions.

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)

NATO, founded in 1949, is a military alliance between the United States, Canada, and Western European nations created to deter Soviet aggression. It reflected widespread fear that the USSR might expand its influence into Western Europe following the communist takeover of Eastern Europe. Throughout the 20th century, NATO shaped the political and military landscape by committing Western nations to collective defense and anchoring Europe within a U.S.-led security framework. Its legacy endures as one of the most influential military alliances in modern history and a key institution of postwar stability.

How did WWII transform conceptions of citizenship in Europe?

World War II fundamentally reshaped European citizenship by exposing the dangers of ethnic nationalism, racial exclusion, and authoritarian state power. In response, many European nations redefined citizenship to emphasize universal rights, social welfare, and democratic participation rather than ethnic belonging. Across 20th-century Europe, this shift led to the expansion of welfare states, strengthened civil rights protections, and new commitments to international human rights institutions. The legacy is a more inclusive, rights-based conception of citizenship that contrasts sharply with the exclusionary ideologies that fueled the war.

Welfare State

The welfare state refers to government systems that provide social protections such as healthcare, unemployment insurance, pensions, and housing support. It expanded dramatically in Europe after WWII, as governments sought to rebuild societies traumatized by war and prevent the social instability that had fostered fascism and economic collapse. Throughout the 20th century, welfare states became central to European identity, promoting social equality and economic security. Their legacy remains visible in Europe's broad public services and strong commitment to social rights.

National Health Service (Great Britain, 1948)

The NHS, created in 1948, established universal, publicly funded healthcare in the United Kingdom. It emerged from wartime experiences that highlighted inequality and the need for accessible health services to rebuild national strength. In the context of European history, the NHS became a model for other postwar welfare-state reforms and symbolized the belief that citizenship included the right to healthcare. Its legacy is a lasting institution of British social policy and one of the most influential public health systems in modern Europe.

"Economic miracles" (ca. 1955-1965)

The "economic miracles" refer to the rapid economic growth experienced by Western European nations—especially West Germany, Italy, and France—during the postwar decades. This prosperity was driven by reconstruction, technological modernization, U.S. aid, and increasing European cooperation. In 20th-century Europe, these years marked a dramatic contrast to wartime devastation, enabling rising living standards, consumer culture, and political stability. Their legacy includes the strengthening of Western democracies and the foundations for European integration.

European Common Market

The European Common Market, established by the Treaty of Rome in 1957, created the European Economic Community (EEC), allowing freer movement of goods, labor, and capital. It grew out of the desire to prevent future wars through economic interdependence and to ensure faster recovery by linking national economies. In European history, the Common Market laid the groundwork for the modern European Union by promoting cooperation over competition. Its legacy is the long-term economic and political integration of Europe.

What factors contributed to Western European economic integration during the postwar period?

Postwar integration was driven by the desire to prevent another catastrophic conflict, the need to rebuild shattered economies, and the influence of the United States through the Marshall Plan. Additional pressures included the Soviet threat, which pushed Western nations toward collective unity, and the practical economic benefits of shared markets and coordinated production. Throughout the 20th century, these forces encouraged nations to shift from nationalist competition to cooperative economic structures. The legacy is the creation of institutions like the EEC and later the EU, transforming Europe into a highly integrated economic region.

Americanization (what does the term refer to?)

"Americanization" refers to the spread of U.S. cultural, economic, and political influence in Europe, especially after WWII. It became visible through consumer goods, entertainment, business practices, and political ideals that entered Western European society during the Cold War. In European history, Americanization symbolized modernization and prosperity for some, but also sparked fears of cultural homogenization and the loss of traditional identities. Its legacy is a lasting transatlantic cultural connection and ongoing debates about globalization and cultural independence.

COMECON

COMECON, founded in 1949, was the Soviet-led economic organization for communist states, intended as an alternative to the Western European Common Market. It coordinated trade and production within the Eastern Bloc, often prioritizing Soviet interests over balanced economic development. In 20th-century Europe, COMECON reinforced the division between capitalist Western Europe and socialist Eastern Europe. Its legacy includes economic stagnation in many Eastern Bloc countries and structural problems that became evident after the fall of communism.

Kitchen debate

The Kitchen Debate occurred in 1959 during an exhibition in Moscow, where U.S. Vice President Richard Nixon and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev debated the merits of capitalism and communism while standing in a model American kitchen. Taking place amid Cold War rivalry, the debate symbolized the ideological competition over consumer goods, living standards, and technological progress. In European history, it highlighted the contrast between Western consumer prosperity and Eastern socialist austerity. Its legacy lies in how it captured the Cold War's shift from military confrontation to competition through lifestyle and economic achievement.

Shadow economies

Shadow economies refer to informal or illegal economic activities that occur outside official state regulation and taxation. After WWII, both Eastern and Western Europe developed significant shadow economies, often as a response to shortages, rationing, or bureaucratic inefficiencies. In 20th-century Europe, shadow markets became especially prominent in communist states where state planning failed to meet consumer needs, as well as in parts of Western Europe undergoing reconstruction. Their legacy includes the recognition that informal economic networks could sustain communities during hardship while also undermining state authority and economic reform.

What similarities existed between the economies of Eastern and Western Europe during the postwar period?

Despite ideological differences, both Eastern and Western Europe pursued reconstruction, industrial modernization, and expansion of welfare provisions after WWII. Each region relied heavily on state involvement in the economy, whether through planning and nationalization in the East or government-directed welfare capitalism in the West. Across 20th-century Europe, this shared commitment to rebuilding societies and preventing the instability of the interwar years shaped economic policy. The similarity left a legacy of strong state roles in European economies even after the Cold War.

What were the key differences between Eastern and Western Europe during the postwar period?

Western Europe rebuilt through market economies supported by U.S. aid, political pluralism, and increasing integration through institutions like the Common Market. Eastern Europe, by contrast, operated under Soviet domination, using centralized planning, collectivization, and political repression to enforce socialist economic models. These differences created sharply divergent standards of living, consumer cultures, and political freedoms across Europe. Their legacy is the division of the continent into capitalist and communist blocs, shaping European identity and development long after 1989.

Decolonization

Decolonization refers to the process by which European empires in Asia and Africa dissolved after WWII as colonies gained independence. It emerged from weakened European states, rising nationalist movements, and global pressures from the U.S. and USSR, both of which opposed old imperial structures. In 20th-century Europe, decolonization reshaped international relations, undermined traditional European global dominance, and forced new debates over citizenship, migration, and national identity. Its legacy includes both the birth of new nations and enduring postcolonial challenges in Europe and abroad.

Mohandas Gandhi

Mohandas Gandhi was the leader of the Indian independence movement who promoted nonviolent resistance against British colonial rule. His activism gained momentum in the interwar and postwar periods, demonstrating that mass mobilization could successfully challenge European imperial power. For 20th-century Europe, Gandhi represented a new model of anti-colonial leadership that contrasted sharply with earlier violent uprisings. His legacy influenced other independence movements globally and contributed to the moral and political pressure on European empires to relinquish control.

Satyagraga

Satyagraha, Gandhi's philosophy of "truth-force" or nonviolent civil resistance, emphasized peaceful protest, moral persuasion, and civil disobedience. It gained international attention as an effective strategy against British rule in India. In a European context, satyagraha revealed the declining legitimacy of colonial violence and inspired later civil rights and anti-war movements across the continent. Its legacy is the global adoption of nonviolent activism as a legitimate political tool.

Partition

Partition refers to the 1947 division of British India into two independent states, India and Pakistan, based largely on religious demographics. It was a violent and chaotic process that reflected Britain's rushed withdrawal and inability to manage rising communal tensions. In relation to 20th-century Europe, the partition demonstrated the destructive consequences of colonial rule and the challenges of decolonizing diverse societies. Its legacy includes massive refugee flows, enduring geopolitical conflict, and a cautionary example of the dangers of dividing nations along ethnic or religious lines.

Pieds noirs ("black feet")

The pieds noirs were European settlers—mostly French—living in Algeria during French colonial rule. They occupied privileged positions in the colonial hierarchy and fiercely opposed Algerian independence. In European history, their displacement after Algerian independence highlighted the human and political costs of decolonization. Their legacy includes ongoing cultural and political tensions in France, especially over memory, identity, and the meaning of colonialism.

FLN (Front de Liberation National/National Liberation Front)

The FLN was the main Algerian nationalist movement that led the armed struggle against French colonial rule beginning in 1954. It employed guerrilla tactics, political mobilization, and international diplomacy to gain independence. In European history, the FLN challenged France's claims to imperial prestige and exposed the limits of European colonial power. Its legacy is the establishment of an independent Algerian state and the broader impact it had on other anti-colonial movements.

OAS (Organisation d'Armée Secrète/Secret Army Organization)

The OAS was a violent, far-right paramilitary group formed by French settlers and military officers who opposed Algerian independence. During the Algerian War, it carried out bombings, assassinations, and terror attacks in both Algeria and France. In 20th-century Europe, the OAS represented the extreme backlash against decolonization and revealed the fractures within the French state and society. Its legacy includes the normalization of political terrorism as a reaction to imperial collapse and the lasting trauma of the Algerian conflict.

Evian Accords (1962)

The Evian Accords ended the Algerian War by granting Algeria full independence from France and establishing protections for French citizens remaining in the country. They emerged after years of brutal conflict, political crisis in France, and international condemnation of colonial violence. In European history, the accords marked one of the definitive ends of the European empire in Africa and contributed to the collapse of France's Fourth Republic and the rise of de Gaulle's Fifth Republic. Their legacy includes the mass migration of pieds noirs to France and long-term tensions in Franco-Algerian relations.

Why did so many Europeans resist decolonization?

Many Europeans resisted decolonization because the empire had been central to national identity, economic interests, and global prestige for generations. Colonies provided resources, markets, and strategic power, and many Europeans viewed imperial rule as a civilizing mission that justified continued control. In the 20th century, the loss of empire was seen by some as a threat to national strength and social stability, especially amid Cold War anxieties. The legacy of this resistance was prolonged and often violent decolonization struggles, as seen in Algeria, Vietnam, and Kenya.

Why did the Algerian War divide France so deeply?

The Algerian War deeply divided France because it forced the nation to confront the contradictions between republican ideals—liberty, equality, citizenship—and the realities of colonial domination. The conflict split political parties, provoked military insubordination, and generated violent extremism from both the FLN and the OAS, while millions of French citizens disagreed over whether Algeria was truly part of France. In 20th-century Europe, the war exposed the fragility of European empires and contributed to the collapse of France's Fourth Republic. Its legacy is visible in ongoing debates about immigration, national identity, colonial memory, and the meaning of citizenship in modern France.

What factors contributed to the longevity of the Communist system?

Communist regimes in Eastern Europe endured for decades because they combined political repression, centralized economic control, and propaganda to maintain authority. Soviet military backing ensured that uprisings—such as in Hungary (1956) or Czechoslovakia (1968)—were crushed, signaling that alternatives were unacceptable. Additionally, early postwar achievements like industrial growth, welfare provisions, and promises of equality created initial legitimacy. The legacy of this longevity shows how authoritarian systems can survive when supported by ideology, coercion, and geopolitical structures.

Mikhail Gorbachev

Mikhail Gorbachev became the leader of the Soviet Union in 1985 and sought to reform the stagnating communist system through openness and economic restructuring. His policies inadvertently weakened the Soviet grip on Eastern Europe by reducing repression and encouraging political expression. In 20th-century Europe, Gorbachev's reforms opened the path to the collapse of Soviet communism and the end of the Cold War. His legacy remains tied to democratization movements, German reunification, and the dissolution of the USSR.

Glasnost ("openness")

Glasnost was Gorbachev's policy encouraging public debate, transparency, and reduced censorship within the Soviet Union. Designed to revitalize socialism, glasnost instead exposed government corruption, economic failures, and historical crimes, fueling demands for reform. In European history, glasnost emboldened dissidents across Eastern Europe and undermined the legitimacy of communist rule. Its legacy is the empowerment of civil society and the unraveling of authoritarian information control.

Perestroika ("restructuring")

Perestroika referred to Gorbachev's economic reforms aimed at decentralizing planning, introducing limited market mechanisms, and improving efficiency. These reforms came at a time of economic stagnation and were intended to modernize socialism rather than dismantle it. In 20th-century Europe, perestroika destabilized established power structures and exposed weaknesses in the Soviet economy, accelerating the collapse of communist governments. Its legacy is the transition—often chaotic—from planned to market economies in the post-communist world.

Lech Walesa

Lech Walesa was a Polish electrician who became the leader of the Solidarity movement, the first independent labor union recognized in the communist bloc. His leadership during strikes and negotiations challenged the authority of the Polish communist government and demonstrated the potential for mass opposition from below. In European history, Walesa became a symbol of resistance to Soviet domination and helped trigger broader anti-communist movements in Eastern Europe. His legacy includes Poland's peaceful transition to democracy and his role as a Nobel Peace Prize laureate and later president.

Solidartity

Solidarity, founded in 1980, was a Polish labor movement that developed into a nationwide democratic opposition to communist rule. Emerging from harsh economic conditions and political repression, the movement united workers, intellectuals, and clergy. In 20th-century Europe, Solidarity marked a turning point because it forced the communist government into negotiations and showed that Soviet intervention was no longer guaranteed. Its legacy is the model it provided for peaceful resistance and negotiated transitions across Eastern Europe in 1989.

Danube Circle

The Danube Circle was an environmental and intellectual dissident group in Hungary during the 1980s that opposed a Soviet-backed hydroelectric project on ecological and political grounds. Cloaked in environmental activism, it became a platform for challenging censorship and state authority. In European history, such grassroots movements signaled the weakening of communist control and the rise of civil society activism. Its legacy lies in demonstrating how even non-political issues could catalyze broader democratic movements.

Identify and briefly explain at least three causes for the collapse of communism in 1989.

One major cause was economic stagnation, as planned economies failed to produce enough consumer goods, innovate, or compete with Western markets, generating widespread dissatisfaction. A second cause was Gorbachev's reforms—glasnost and perestroika—which weakened authoritarian controls, encouraged dissent, and signaled that the USSR would no longer intervene militarily to support satellite regimes. A third cause was the rise of organized opposition movements such as Solidarity, environmental groups, and intellectual dissidents, which mobilized civil society and eroded communist legitimacy. The legacy of these causes was the rapid, largely peaceful dismantling of communist rule across Eastern Europe.

European Economic Community

The EEC, created by the Treaty of Rome in 1957, sought to integrate European economies through a common market that reduced trade barriers and promoted cooperation. After 1989, the EEC expanded to include former communist states seeking stability, economic modernization, and political alignment with Western Europe. In 20th-century Europe, the EEC laid the institutional foundations for the European Union and fostered unprecedented economic interdependence. Its legacy is the transformation of Europe into a major integrated economic bloc.

Maastricht Treaty/Treaty of European Union (1992)

The Maastricht Treaty established the European Union and set the stage for deeper political and economic integration, including the creation of a single currency. Coming after the end of the Cold War, the treaty reflected optimism about European unity and the desire to prevent future conflict through interconnected institutions. In European history, Maastricht shifted Europe from economic cooperation to political union, though not without controversy. Its legacy includes the euro, the expansion of EU citizenship rights, and ongoing debates about national sovereignty.

Schengen Zone

The Schengen Zone allows passport-free travel across participating European countries, effectively creating open internal borders. Developed alongside increasing European integration, it represented a major step toward mobility, cooperation, and shared responsibility for border management. In 20th-century Europe, Schengen symbolized the triumph of unity over historical divisions, especially after the Cold War. Its legacy remains the transformation of European daily life, though challenges related to migration and security continue to test the system.

What requirements were instituted for membership after the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe?

Countries seeking to join European institutions after 1989 were required to establish functioning democracies, protect human rights, and adopt market economies capable of competing within the EU. They also needed to demonstrate the rule of law, administrative transparency, and the ability to implement EU legislation. In European history, these requirements—later formalized as the Copenhagen Criteria—ensured that post-communist states aligned with Western political and economic norms. Their legacy is the relatively stable integration of Central and Eastern Europe into the EU.

Euroscepticism

Euroscepticism refers to political viewpoints that question or oppose European integration, criticizing the EU for undermining national sovereignty or imposing economic burdens. It gained momentum in the late 20th century as the EU expanded in size and authority, and as globalization altered economic landscapes. In European history, Euroscepticism has shaped debates over the euro, immigration, and political identity, influencing elections and referenda. Its legacy includes growing political polarization and the possibility of further challenges to the integration project, exemplified by Brexit.

Collaboration

Collaboration refers to cooperation between local populations and occupying forces, especially during WWII under Nazi occupation. It emerged from a mix of coercion, opportunism, ideological alignment, and attempts at survival under harsh conditions. In 20th-century Europe, collaboration became a painful postwar issue as nations struggled to reconcile resistance myths with the reality of widespread accommodation or support for occupiers. Its legacy includes ongoing debates about guilt, memory, justice, and how societies confront morally ambiguous behavior during wartime.

National Revolution

The "National Revolution" was the ideological program of the Vichy regime in France (1940-1944), which sought to reject the values of the French Third Republic and replace them with authoritarianism, nationalism, and traditional social hierarchies. It emerged in the context of France's defeat by Nazi Germany and reflected a broader European trend of right-wing regimes that blamed democracy, liberalism, and perceived moral decline for national weakness. In 20th-century Europe, the National Revolution aligned Vichy with fascist ideas and facilitated collaboration with Nazi occupation. Its legacy is one of repression, antisemitism, and the betrayal of republican principles, remembered today as a dark period of French history.

Service du Travail Obligator/STO (Obligatory Labor Service)

The STO was a Vichy France policy (1942-1944) that required young French men to perform forced labor in Germany to support the Nazi war economy. Instituted under increasing German pressure, it deepened resentment toward the Vichy regime and pushed many youths into the Resistance. In European history, the STO exemplified how collaborationist governments contributed directly to the German war machine. Its legacy includes both the memory of coercion and the role it played in strengthening anti-Vichy opposition.

Resistance (What does the term mean?)

The Resistance refers to the diverse networks and groups across occupied Europe that opposed Nazi rule and collaborationist governments through sabotage, intelligence, underground press, and armed struggle. These movements grew as occupation intensified and democratic ideals came under threat. In 20th-century Europe, the Resistance symbolized both national pride and the fight for liberation, though it often represented a small minority at the time. Its legacy is central to postwar national identities, shaping narratives of heroism, legitimacy, and moral renewal.

Appeal of June 14

The Appeal of June 14 (often confused with de Gaulle's more famous June 18 speech) refers to the calls issued by French leaders in June 1940, urging continued resistance to Germany even after France's military defeat. These appeals, including de Gaulle's, offered a rallying cry against surrender and collaboration at a moment when the French state was collapsing. Inthe European context, such appeals marked the beginning of organized resistance against Axis domination. Their legacy is foundational to the mythos of Free France and French postwar patriotism.

Maquis

The Maquis were rural guerrilla groups in France who hid in forests and mountains to resist German occupation and the Vichy regime. Initially formed by young men avoiding the STO, the Maquis evolved into armed units conducting sabotage, ambushes, and support for Allied operations. In 20th-century Europe, the Maquis embodied decentralized, grassroots resistance that undermined Axis control. Their legacy is celebrated in French memory and commemorated as a symbol of courage, though their history also raises questions about violence, internal divisions, and postwar political claims.

Charles de Gaulle

Charles de Gaulle was the leader of Free France during WWII and later became president, shaping the establishment of France's Fifth Republic. During the war, he rejected the Vichy surrender and insisted that France would continue fighting alongside the Allies, becoming a symbol of national resilience. In 20th-century Europe, de Gaulle influenced postwar reconstruction, European integration, and Cold War diplomacy, emphasizing national independence. His legacy is profound: a reassertion of French sovereignty, long-term political reforms, and a central place in France's collective memory of WWII.

Law for the Prevention of Offspring with Hereditary Disease (1933)

This Nazi law mandated the forced sterilization of people deemed to have hereditary illnesses such as epilepsy, schizophrenia, or physical disabilities. Emerging from the Nazi belief in racial hygiene, it expanded state power over reproduction and paved the way for later genocidal policies. In 20th-century Europe, the law represented a radicalization of eugenics ideas that were present across Europe and North America. Its legacy is one of grave medical and ethical violations that helped spur postwar human rights protections and the codification of informed consent in medical practice

Kristallnacht

Kristallnacht ("Night of Broken Glass"), occurring on November 9-10, 1938, was a state-sanctioned pogrom in which Nazi forces and civilians attacked Jewish homes, businesses, and synagogues across Germany and Austria. It marked a shift from discriminatory laws to open, violent persecution of Jews. In European history, Kristallnacht revealed the escalating danger of Nazi antisemitism and the indifference or inaction of many outside observers. Its legacy is a pivotal moment remembered as a precursor to the Holocaust and as evidence of how quickly social exclusion can turn into mass violence.

T4 Program (1938)

The T4 Program was a secret Nazi euthanasia initiative that murdered tens of thousands of people with disabilities through gas chambers, starvation, and lethal injection. It arose from the regime's obsession with racial purity and the desire to eliminate those considered "life unworthy of life." In 20th-century Europe, T4 served as a technological and administrative precursor to the extermination camps, transferring personnel and methods directly to the Holocaust. Its legacy is a chilling example of how medical authority can be weaponized by totalitarian states.

Einsatzgruppen (Special Operations Groups)

The Einsatzgruppen were mobile killing units that followed the German army during invasions, particularly in Eastern Europe, conducting mass shootings of Jews, Roma, communists, and others. They played a central role in the early phase of the Holocaust before death camps became the primary killing method. In the context of 20th-century Europe, their actions demonstrated the genocidal intent of Operation Barbarossa and the extreme brutality of Nazi ideology. Their legacy includes the recognition of mass shootings as a core component of genocide and the postwar prosecution of war crimes.

Operation Barbarossa

Operation Barbarossa was Nazi Germany's 1941 invasion of the Soviet Union, the largest military operation in history at the time. Driven by ideological visions of Lebensraum and racial conquest, the invasion opened the Eastern Front—the deadliest theater of WWII. In 20th-century Europe, Barbarossa transformed the war into a total, racialized conflict and triggered unprecedented levels of destruction and genocide. Its legacy includes millions of deaths, the eventual Soviet pushback, and the shaping of postwar Europe's geopolitical order.

Commisar Order

The Commissar Order, issued by the German High Command in 1941, instructed troops to execute captured Soviet political commissars immediately as carriers of "Judeo-Bolshevik" ideology. It was part of Nazi racial warfare and violated international laws governing the treatment of prisoners of war. In European history, this order exemplified the ideological extremism of the Eastern Front, where norms of warfare were deliberately abandoned. Its legacy lies in its role in establishing the criminal nature of German warfare in the East and its use as evidence in postwar trials.

Zyklon B

Zyklon B was the cyanide-based pesticide used by Nazi Germany as the primary killing agent in gas chambers at Auschwitz-Birkenau and other extermination camps. Its adaptation from industrial use to mass murder reflected the bureaucratic and technological dimensions of the Holocaust. In 20th-century Europe, Zyklon B became a symbol of the mechanized, industrialized nature of genocide. Its legacy is forever tied to the memory of the Holocaust and the ethical responsibilities associated with science, technology, and mass violence.

Madagascar Plan

The Madagascar Plan was a Nazi proposal from 1940 that envisioned deporting Europe's Jewish population to Madagascar as a supposed "solution" to the so-called Jewish question. It emerged before the Final Solution, when Nazi policy still focused on forced expulsion rather than systematic extermination, and it became unworkable due to wartime conditions. In the context of 20th-century Europe, the plan revealed the radical and racist thinking that structured Nazi policy well before genocide was formally implemented. Its legacy lies in its demonstration that the Holocaust evolved from earlier plans for removal and displacement into industrialized mass murder.

Aushwitz

Auschwitz was the largest and most notorious Nazi concentration and extermination camp complex, located in occupied Poland. Originally a prison camp, it expanded into a central site of the Holocaust, where over a million Jews—as well as Poles, Roma, Soviet POWs, and others—were murdered through gas chambers, starvation, disease, and forced labor. In 20th-century Europe, Auschwitz symbolized the extreme consequences of racist ideology, bureaucratic violence, and modern technology used for mass killing. Its legacy is foundational to global memory of genocide and serves as a permanent reminder of the moral and political responsibilities of modern societies.

Harkis

Harkis were Algerian Muslims who fought alongside French forces during the Algerian War (1954-1962). After Algerian independence, many were persecuted as traitors, and only a fraction were evacuated to France, where they often lived in poverty and isolation. In European history, the Harkis embody the moral complexities and human costs of decolonization, particularly for those who aligned with European powers. Their legacy continues to shape debates in France over responsibility, memory, and the treatment of colonial-era allies.

S.S. Empire Windrush

The Empire Windrush was the British ship that arrived in 1948 carrying hundreds of Caribbean migrants, marking the symbolic beginning of large-scale postwar immigration to the UK. Its arrival reflected Britain's labor shortages, imperial ties, and the reconstruction needs of a society emerging from WWII. In 20th-century Europe, the Windrush generation reshaped British demographics, contributed to economic growth, and ignited new conversations about race, citizenship, and multiculturalism. Its legacy includes both the celebration of migrant contributions and the injustices revealed in the recent "Windrush scandal," where many descendants faced wrongful deportation threats.

Gastarbeiter "guest worker."

Gastarbeiter refers to the foreign laborers—especially from Turkey, Italy, Yugoslavia, and Greece—invited to West Germany and other European states during the postwar economic boom to fill labor shortages. These programs emerged from rapid industrial growth and the need for a larger workforce during the "economic miracles" of the 1950s and 1960s. Throughout 20th-century Europe, guest workers played a key role in rebuilding economies but also raised new questions about cultural integration and national identity. Their legacy includes the development of ethnically diverse societies and ongoing debates about immigration and citizenship.

Bidonvilles (Shantytowns)

Bidonvilles were informal settlements, often lacking basic services, inhabited largely by immigrants from former colonies in postwar France. They appeared around major cities such as Paris and Marseille as migrant workers arrived faster than affordable housing could be built. In the context of 20th-century Europe, bidonvilles highlighted the social inequalities and racial tensions that accompanied decolonization and labor migration. Their legacy persists in discussions about urban policy, integration, and the long-term effects of colonialism on European social structures.

Notting Hill Riots

The Notting Hill Riots of 1958 were violent clashes in London sparked by racist attacks on West Indian migrants, reflecting rising hostility toward the growing Black British population. They occurred in a period of social strain, housing shortages, and anxieties about cultural change. In 20th-century Europe, the riots symbolized the challenges of transitioning from empire to a multicultural society and highlighted deep-seated racial tensions within former colonial powers. Their legacy includes the emergence of anti-racist activism and the annual Notting Hill Carnival as a celebration of Caribbean culture.

Commonwealth Immigration Act (1962)

The Commonwealth Immigration Act restricted free movement for people from Britain's former colonies, ending the previously open-door policy for Commonwealth citizens. It arose from increasing public pressure to limit non-white immigration and reflected Britain's struggle to reconcile postwar labor needs with anxieties about national identity. In European history, the act marked a major shift toward restrictive immigration policies and the racialization of citizenship. Its legacy includes ongoing debates about immigration control, multiculturalism, and Britain's obligations to Commonwealth populations.

National Front Parties

National Front parties emerged in several Western European countries—most prominently in France and the UK—as far-right, anti-immigration political movements reacting to growing ethnic diversity and economic anxieties in the late 20th century. They gained traction by presenting themselves as defenders of national identity against perceived cultural or economic threats. In 20th-century Europe, these parties reflected the backlash against decolonization, globalization, and postwar migration. Their legacy is the normalization of right-wing populism in European politics and persistent debates about nationalism, integration, and xenophobia.

Maus (Art Spiegelman)

Maus is a graphic novel in which Art Spiegelman tells the story of his father, Vladek's experiences as a Polish Jew during the Holocaust, including life under Nazi occupation, survival in ghettos, and imprisonment in Auschwitz. The book intertwines past and present, showing how trauma affects survivors and their children, while using an animal metaphor—Jews as mice, Germans as cats—to depict the racial ideology of the era. As a work about 20th-century Europe, Maus highlights the brutality of Nazi persecution, the complexity of memory, and the long-lasting psychological impact of genocide. Its legacy lies in its groundbreaking use of the graphic novel form to convey historical trauma and its role as a powerful educational tool on the Holocaust.

Marzi (Marzena Sowa & Sylvain Savoia

Marzi is a graphic memoir recounting Marzena Sowa's childhood in 1980s Poland under communist rule, seen through the eyes of a young girl growing up amid shortages, censorship, propaganda, and political unrest. The book provides a personal window into daily life behind the Iron Curtain, showing both the hardships of the command economy and the small joys and curiosities of childhood. In the context of 20th-century Europe, Marzi illustrates how communist systems shaped ordinary lives and how events like Solidarity's rise and the collapse of the regime were experienced at the ground level. Its legacy is the way it humanizes the Cold War, offering an intimate, relatable perspective on life in Eastern Europe before the fall of communism.

Joseph Hoebbels, "German Women" (1934)

In this 1934 speech, Nazi Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels outlines the regime's vision of women as devoted mothers, homemakers, and supporters of men, emphasizing motherhood and racial purity over political or professional ambitions. Delivered during the consolidation of Nazi power, it reflects the regime's attempt to reshape gender roles in line with fascist ideology. Its significance lies in how it justified restrictive policies on women's rights, mobilized women for the Volksgemeinschaft, and contributed to the broader structure of Nazi social engineering.

The Nuremberg Laws

The Nuremberg Laws were a set of racial laws passed by Nazi Germany that stripped Jews of citizenship and prohibited marriages or sexual relations between Jews and "Aryans." Emerging from escalating antisemitism, the laws provided a legal foundation for the exclusion, segregation, and eventual destruction of Europe's Jewish population. Their significance in 20th-century Europe is immense: they marked the transition from discrimination to systematic persecution, demonstrating how legal systems can institutionalize racism and enable genocide.

The Reich Citizenship Law

One component of the Nuremberg Laws, the Reich Citizenship Law redefined German citizenship to exclude Jews and other groups deemed racially inferior, designating them as "subjects" without political rights. It reflected Nazi efforts to align law with racial ideology and remove Jews from all aspects of public life. Historically, the law played a crucial role in the social, economic, and political exclusion that paved the way for the Holocaust. Its legacy is a stark warning of how the denial of citizenship rights can escalate into state-sanctioned violence.

United Nations, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948

Adopted in 1948 in the aftermath of WWII and the Holocaust, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) set out a global framework for protecting fundamental freedoms, equality, and human dignity. It arose from the recognition that unchecked nationalism, racism, and state violence had produced catastrophic consequences in Europe. In 20th-century Europe, the UDHR reshaped legal and political norms by promoting international oversight, human rights law, and democratic principles. Its legacy persists in legal frameworks, humanitarian organizations, and the moral vocabulary of global politics.

Discourse on Colonialism

Césaire's Discourse on Colonialism is a powerful critique of European colonialism, arguing that colonial violence, exploitation, and racism undermined the moral foundations of Western civilization. Written during accelerating decolonization movements, it exposes parallels between colonial brutality abroad and fascist violence within Europe. In European history, the work challenged Europeans to confront the hypocrisies of imperialism and rethink ideas of civilization and progress. Its legacy endures in postcolonial studies, antiracist activism, and debates about the long-term consequences of empire.

Gorbachev on Glasnost and Perestroika

In these writings and speeches, Mikhail Gorbachev outlines his reform programs: glasnost, promoting openness and public debate, and perestroika, restructuring the stagnant Soviet economy. Composed during a period of deep economic crisis and political rigidity, Gorbachev's proposals aimed to revitalize socialism but instead destabilized the system. In 20th-century Europe, these reforms encouraged dissent, weakened Soviet control over Eastern Europe, and helped trigger the collapse of communist regimes. Their legacy is tied to democratization, the end of the Cold War, and the dissolution of the USSR.