AP Psychology Unit 1

Orta 2025

Cerebral cortex

outer layer of brain, cognitive functions

association areas

parts of brain that control parts of sensory behavior, allow us to understand the world

frontal lobes

decision-making, planning, personality

prefrontal cortex

higher thinking, decisions, long-term goals, located in frontal lobe

executive functioning

allow us to plan, organize, and strategize

motor cortex

frontal lobe, voluntary bodily movements

parietal lobes

top of brain, sensory info.

somatosensory cortex

parietal lobe- processes sensations, responds to stimuli

occipital lobe

back of brain- visual info. contains primary visual cortex

visual association cortex

recognizes lines, shapes, movement, etc.

temporal lobe

sides of brain- audio (auditory cortex), language/memory

corpus callosum

connects L/R hemispheres, sends info between both

“highway”

brainstem

oldest part of brain, basic life functions, necessary for survival

medulla

breathing, heartbeat, blood pressure, involuntary nerve signals between brain/spinal cord

regular activating system

network of neurons, regulates consciousness/ arousal, filters sensory info

limbic system

beneath cerebral cortex, emotion/motivation

reward system

processes pleasure, reinforces behavior, in limbic system

thalamus

processes/transmits movement/sensory info. to correct lobe, above medulla, voluntary stimuli gateway

cerebellum

back of brain- coordinates movement, fine-tune motor skills

hypothalamus

below thalamus, body functions ex-hunger/sleep

pituitary gland

base of brain, regulates hormones

hippocampus

w/in temporal lobes, form/consolidate memory

amygdala

emotional center- sp. fear/aggression, fight or flight

mri vs fmri

mri-brain imaging, fmri- brain activity

neuroplasticity

ability to change/adapt brain structures/function

structural plasticity

brain ability to change physical structure

functional plasticity

brain ability to move functions from undamaged area to other undamaged areas

contralateral hemispheric organization

cross-wiring

broca’s area

L hemisphere, frontal lobe, speech production

wernicke’s area

L hemisphere, temporal lobe language comprehension, comes before broca’s area

nervous system

body’s communication network- involves all nerve cells

central nervous system

largest part of nervous system- coordinates actions

peripheral nervous system

sensory nerves, CNS connected to body

motor vs. sensory pathway

motor- brain to body

sensory- body to brain

somatic nervous system

nerves transmit from brain to skeletal muscles to allow movement, carries info. for CNS

motor neurons

carry info from CNS to muscle fibers, allow physical action in response to stimuli

sensory neurons

carry info from nerves to CNS

interneurons

neurons in brain/spinal cord, communicate btwn sensory/motor outputs

reflex arc

signal from sensory organ to spinal cord, processes without brain- ex: hot stove

autonomic nervous system

regulates involuntary actions- ex: breathing, digestion

sympathetic nervous system

emergency response system- fight/flight, gears up to defend

parasympathetic nervous system

calm down response system- reduces "“gear up”

neuron

nerve cell, receives/sends electrochemical sigals

neurotransmitters

chemicals in brain, carry messages between neurons- up to 100 different types

glial cells

provide physical support for neurons to grow on/around

dendrites

receive electrical messages from other cells

soma

cell body-maintain cell

axon

extends from cell body to terminal endings, carries messages

myelin sheath

wraps around axon to protect it

axon terminal

tips at end of axon, send signal

synapse

meeting point between neurons

synaptic vesicles

store neurotransmitters that are released at synapse

receptor sites

receive signals, “lock” where neurotransmitter fits

threshold

level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential in a neuron

action potential

brief electrical impulse, travels along axon, response to a stimulus

all or none principle

once a neuron reaches threshold, it WILL fire an action potential at FULL strength

depolarization

phase of action potential, inside of neuron becomes more positive than outside

refractory period

brief period following an action potential where a neuron cannot generate another, must “recharge”

resting potential

stable negative charge that exists when a neuron isn’t actively transmitting

reuptake

process in which neurotransmitters that have been released into synapse are reabsorbed to be reused

multiple sclerosis

autoimmune disease, effects CNS, immune system attacks myelin sheath

myasthenia

autoimmune disease, effects neuromuscular function, immune system blocks muscle contraction receptors

neurotransmitter

chemical messenger

acetylcholine

movement/memory, excitatory

serotonin

happiness/sleep, inhibitory

dopamine

pleasure/addiction, inhibitory

norinepinephrine

danger/attention, excitatory

GABA

calming/motor control, excitatory

glutamate

normal operations/thinking/memory, excitatory

endorphins

euphoria/well-being, inhibitory

substance p

pain

endocrine system

secrete hormones

hormones

chemical messengers, slower than nt but last longer

oxytocin

social/romantic interaction hormone

ghrelin

appetite/hunger hormone

leptin

energy balance, suppress appetite hormone

melatonin

sleep/wake cycle hormone

epinephrine

high stress/excitement hormone

cortisol

mood/motivation/fear, returns body to normal after high stress

evolutionary perspective

study of how psych traits have evolved over time to enhance survival/reproduction

natural selection

organisms with better suited traits are more likely to survive/reproduce

nature vs nurture

nature- bio/genetic influence

nuture-environmental influence

heredity

transmission of genetic info from parents to child

heritability

how much of someone’s traits come from parents vs environment

epigenetics

study of heritable changes in gene expression, due to non-genetic causes

methylution

genes turn off because of protein interaction

eugenics

belief in improving genetic quality of a population by controlling desired traits

spontaneous consciousness

ex: daydreaming

physically induced consciousness

hallucination

mentally induced consciousness

hypnosis

circadian rhythm

24 hour cycle of physical/bio processes

suprachiasmatic nucleus

syncs with the sun, sends hormonal signals to wake/sleep, etc

wake sleep cycle

bio rhythm cycle every 90-110 min, 5 stages

non-REM stage 1

transition between wake/sleep, ~5-10 min

hypnic jerk

sensation of falling

non-REM stage 2

~20 min, lightly asleep

non REM stages 3/4

low delta waves, 35-45 min, most restorative sleep, disruptive if woken

REM sleep

muscles paralyzed, ~10 min, most dreams happen here

microsleep

uncontrollable episode of sleep, ~10 seconds at most, fractional at least

narcolepsy

genetic disorder where a person falls immediately to REM sleep during the day