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Sensation

Detection of physical stimuli by sensory organs.

Perception

Interpretation of sensory information by the brain.

Top-Down Processing

Using prior knowledge and experience to interpret sensory input.

Bottom-Up Processing

Processing sensory input starting with raw data from receptors.

Selective Attention

Focusing on specific stimuli while ignoring others.

Cocktail Party Effect

Ability to focus on one voice in a noisy environment.

Inattentional Blindness

Failure to notice unexpected stimuli while focusing elsewhere.

Transduction

Conversion of sensory stimuli into neural signals.

Signal Detection Theory

Predicting when a faint stimulus will be detected amidst noise.

Absolute Threshold

Minimum level of stimulus detectable 50% of the time.

Just Noticeable Difference (JND)

Smallest detectable change in a stimulus.

Priming

Unconscious exposure to stimuli influencing later responses.

Subliminal

Stimuli below the absolute threshold of conscious awareness.

Sensory Adaptation

Reduced sensitivity to constant, unchanging stimuli.

ESP

Extrasensory perception; the claim of sensing beyond known senses (e.g., telepathy).

Wavelength

Distance between peaks of a wave; affects color and pitch.

Intensity

The strength of a stimulus, such as brightness or loudness.

Rods and Cones

Photoreceptors in the retina; rods detect dim light, cones detect color.

Feature Detectors

Neurons that respond to specific aspects of a stimulus (e.g., shape, movement).

Parallel Processing

Simultaneous analysis of multiple sensory aspects (e.g., color, shape, motion).

Frequency

Number of wave cycles per second; determines pitch.

Pitch

Perceived highness or lowness of a sound, determined by frequency.

Cochlea

Spiral-shaped, fluid-filled inner ear structure that converts sound into neural signals.

Sensorineural Deafness vs. Conduction Hearing Loss

Sensorineural is damage to inner ear or auditory nerve; conduction is impaired sound transmission to the cochlea.

Olfaction

Sense of smell, processed by olfactory receptors.

Vestibular Sense/Kinesthesia

Vestibular sense detects balance and spatial orientation; kinesthesia senses body position and movement.

Cultural norms

Shared behaviors and expectations within a specific group or society.

Confirmation bias

Tendency to search for or interpret information that supports one’s beliefs.

Hindsight bias

Belief that an outcome was predictable after it has occurred ('I knew it all along').

Overconfidence

Overestimating one's abilities or accuracy of knowledge.

Independent variables

Factors manipulated by researchers to observe their effect.

Confounding variables

Uncontrolled factors that can influence the dependent variable.

Dependent variables

Outcomes measured to determine the effect of the independent variable.

Random assignment

Randomly placing participants into groups to reduce bias.

Case study

In-depth analysis of a single individual or small group.

Correlation

A relationship between two variables but without proving causation.

Positive correlation

Both variables increase or decrease together.

Negative correlation

One variable increases as the other decreases.

Meta-analysis

Combining data from multiple studies to draw broader conclusions.

Naturalistic observation

Observing subjects in their natural environment without interference.

Hypothesis

Testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

Falsifiable (as it pertains to hypotheses)

Capable of being proven wrong through evidence.

Operational definitions

Clear, specific explanations of how variables are measured.

Replication

Repeating a study to confirm findings.

Central tendency

Describes the center of a dataset (e.g., mean, median, mode).

Variation

Measures how much data points differ from each other.

Percentile rank

The percentage of scores below a specific score in a dataset.

Mean

Average of all data points.

Median

Middle score in a ranked dataset.

Mode

Most frequently occurring score in a dataset.

Range

Difference between the highest and lowest scores.

Normal curve

Bell-shaped graph showing data distribution with most scores near the mean.

Positive skew

Data with a longer tail on the right side.

Negative skew

Data with a longer tail on the left side.

Standard deviation

Measure of how much data points deviate from the mean.

Sample

Subset of a population used for analysis.

Population

Entire group of individuals being studied.

Representative sample

A sample accurately reflecting the population.

Random sampling

Selecting participants randomly to avoid bias.

Generalizing

Applying findings from a sample to the entire population.

Experimental group

Group exposed to the independent variable.

Control group

Group not exposed to the independent variable; used for comparison.

Placebo

Inactive substance given to control groups to mimic treatment.

Single-blind study

Participants don’t know which group they are in.

Double-blind study

Neither participants nor researchers know group assignments.

Experimenter bias

Researchers unintentionally influence study results.

Qualitative

Data based on descriptions or characteristics.

Quantitative

Data based on numerical measurements.

Likert scales

Rating scales to measure opinions or attitudes.

Peer review

Evaluation of research by other experts in the field.

Replication

Repeating research to ensure reliability.

Scatterplot

Graph showing relationships between two variables.

Correlation coefficient

Number indicating strength and direction of a correlation.

Effect sizes

Measure of the magnitude of a relationship or treatment effect.

Statistical significance

Probability that results are not due to chance.

Directionality problem (in correlation)

Uncertainty about which variable influences the other.

Third variable problem (in correlation)

A separate variable that influences the relationship between two others.

Institutional review

Oversight to ensure ethical standards in research.

Informed consent

Participants agree to a study after being informed about it.

Protection from harm

Researchers must ensure participants' safety.

Confidentiality

Protecting participants' personal information.

Deception

Misleading participants, allowed only when justified and necessary.

Debriefing

Explaining the study to participants after it’s completed.

Consciousness

Awareness of oneself and the environment.

Hypnosis

A trance-like state of heightened suggestibility and focused attention.

Sleep

Natural state of rest for the body and mind, characterized by reduced awareness.

Circadian Rhythm

24-hour biological cycle regulating sleep and wakefulness.

REM Sleep

Sleep stage with rapid eye movements, vivid dreams, and brain activity similar to wakefulness.

Alpha Waves

Slow brain waves associated with relaxed wakefulness.

NREM Sleep

Non-rapid eye movement sleep; includes lighter and deeper stages.

Hallucinations

Sensory experiences without external stimuli, often occurring during sleep onset.

Delta Waves

Large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep (NREM-3).

Insomnia

Persistent difficulty falling or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy

Sleep disorder causing sudden and uncontrollable sleep episodes.

Sleep Apnea

Disorder characterized by temporary breathing interruptions during sleep.

Night Terrors

Episodes of intense fear and physical activity during NREM sleep, often without memory of them.

Dreams

Sequences of images, thoughts, and emotions occurring during sleep, especially REM.

Somnambulism

Sleepwalking; engaging in activities while in NREM sleep.

REM Rebound

Increased REM sleep following sleep deprivation.

Paradoxical Sleep

REM sleep, when the brain is active but the body is immobile.