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Perception: Interpretation of sensory information by the brain.

Top-Down Processing: Using prior knowledge and experience to interpret sensory input.

Bottom-Up Processing: Processing sensory input starting with raw data from receptors.

Selective Attention: Focusing on specific stimuli while ignoring others.

Cocktail Party Effect: Ability to focus on one voice in a noisy environment.

Inattentional Blindness: Failure to notice unexpected stimuli while focusing elsewhere.

Transduction: Conversion of sensory stimuli into neural signals.

Signal Detection Theory: Predicting when a faint stimulus will be detected amidst noise.

Absolute Threshold: Minimum level of stimulus detectable 50% of the time.

Just Noticeable Difference (JND): Smallest detectable change in a stimulus.

Sensation: Detection of physical stimuli by sensory organs.

Priming: Unconscious exposure to stimuli influencing later responses.

Subliminal: Stimuli below the absolute threshold of conscious awareness.

Sensory Adaptation: Reduced sensitivity to constant, unchanging stimuli.

ESP: Extrasensory perception; the claim of sensing beyond known senses (e.g., telepathy).

Wavelength: Distance between peaks of a wave; affects color and pitch.

Intensity: The strength of a stimulus, such as brightness or loudness.

Rods and Cones: Photoreceptors in the retina; rods detect dim light, cones detect color.

Feature Detectors: Neurons that respond to specific aspects of a stimulus (e.g., shape, movement).

Parallel Processing: Simultaneous analysis of multiple sensory aspects (e.g., color, shape, motion).

Frequency: Number of wave cycles per second; determines pitch.

Pitch: Perceived highness or lowness of a sound, determined by frequency.

Cochlea: Spiral-shaped, fluid-filled inner ear structure that converts sound into neural signals.

Sensorineural Deafness vs. Conduction Hearing Loss: Sensorineural is damage to inner ear or auditory nerve; conduction is impaired sound transmission to the cochlea.

Olfaction: Sense of smell, processed by olfactory receptors.

Vestibular Sense/Kinesthesia: Vestibular sense detects balance and spatial orientation; kinesthesia senses body position and movement.

Cultural norms: Shared behaviors and expectations within a specific group or society.

Confirmation bias: Tendency to search for or interpret information that supports one’s beliefs.

Hindsight bias: Belief that an outcome was predictable after it has occurred ("I knew it all along").

Overconfidence: Overestimating one's abilities or accuracy of knowledge.

Independent variables: Factors manipulated by researchers to observe their effect.

Confounding variables: Uncontrolled factors that can influence the dependent variable.

Dependent variables: Outcomes measured to determine the effect of the independent variable.

Random assignment: Randomly placing participants into groups to reduce bias.

Case study: In-depth analysis of a single individual or small group.

Correlation: A relationship between two variables but without proving causation.

Positive correlation: Both variables increase or decrease together.

Negative correlation: One variable increases as the other decreases.

Meta-analysis: Combining data from multiple studies to draw broader conclusions.

Naturalistic observation: Observing subjects in their natural environment without interference.

Hypothesis: Testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

Falsifiable (as it pertains to hypotheses): Capable of being proven wrong through evidence.

Operational definitions: Clear, specific explanations of how variables are measured.

Replication: Repeating a study to confirm findings.

Central tendency: Describes the center of a dataset (e.g., mean, median, mode).

Variation: Measures how much data points differ from each other.

Percentile rank: The percentage of scores below a specific score in a dataset.

Mean: Average of all data points.

Median: Middle score in a ranked dataset.

Mode: Most frequently occurring score in a dataset.

Range: Difference between the highest and lowest scores.

Normal curve: Bell-shaped graph showing data distribution with most scores near the mean.

Positive skew: Data with a longer tail on the right side.

Negative skew: Data with a longer tail on the left side.

Standard deviation: Measure of how much data points deviate from the mean.

Sample: Subset of a population used for analysis.

Population: Entire group of individuals being studied.

Representative sample: A sample accurately reflecting the population.

Random sampling: Selecting participants randomly to avoid bias.

Generalizing: Applying findings from a sample to the entire population.

Experimental group: Group exposed to the independent variable.

Control group: Group not exposed to the independent variable; used for comparison.

Placebo: Inactive substance given to control groups to mimic treatment.

Single-blind study: Participants don’t know which group they are in.

Double-blind study: Neither participants nor researchers know group assignments.

Experimenter bias: Researchers unintentionally influence study results.

Qualitative: Data based on descriptions or characteristics.

Quantitative: Data based on numerical measurements.

Likert scales: Rating scales to measure opinions or attitudes.

Peer review: Evaluation of research by other experts in the field.

Replication: Repeating research to ensure reliability (duplicate definition; see above).

Scatterplot: Graph showing relationships between two variables.

Correlation coefficient: Number indicating strength and direction of a correlation.

Effect sizes: Measure of the magnitude of a relationship or treatment effect.

Statistical significance: Probability that results are not due to chance.

Directionality problem (in correlation): Uncertainty about which variable influences the other.

Third variable problem (in correlation): A separate variable that influences the relationship between two others.

Institutional review: Oversight to ensure ethical standards in research.

Informed consent: Participants agree to a study after being informed about it.

Protection from harm: Researchers must ensure participants' safety.

Confidentiality: Protecting participants' personal information.

Deception: Misleading participants, allowed only when justified and necessary.

Debriefing: Explaining the study to participants after it’s completed.

Consciousness: Awareness of oneself and the environment.

Hypnosis: A trance-like state of heightened suggestibility and focused attention.

Sleep: Natural state of rest for the body and mind, characterized by reduced awareness.

Circadian Rhythm: 24-hour biological cycle regulating sleep and wakefulness.

REM Sleep: Sleep stage with rapid eye movements, vivid dreams, and brain activity similar to wakefulness.

Alpha Waves: Slow brain waves associated with relaxed wakefulness.

NREM Sleep: Non-rapid eye movement sleep; includes lighter and deeper stages.

Hallucinations: Sensory experiences without external stimuli, often occurring during sleep onset.

Delta Waves: Large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep (NREM-3).

Insomnia: Persistent difficulty falling or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy: Sleep disorder causing sudden and uncontrollable sleep episodes.

Sleep Apnea: Disorder characterized by temporary breathing interruptions during sleep.

Night Terrors: Episodes of intense fear and physical activity during NREM sleep, often without memory of them.

Dreams: Sequences of images, thoughts, and emotions occurring during sleep, especially REM.

Somnambulism: Sleepwalking; engaging in activities while in NREM sleep.

REM Rebound: Increased REM sleep following sleep deprivation.

Paradoxical Sleep: REM sleep, when the brain is active but the body is immobile.

Jet Lag: Fatigue and sleep disturbance caused by a mismatch between circadian rhythm and a new time zone.

Activation-Synthesis Theory: Dreams result from the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity during sleep.

Memory Consolidation Theory/Information Processing Theory: Sleep helps strengthen and organize memories.

Psychoactive Drug: Substance that alters mood, perception, or consciousness.

Substance Use Disorder: Compulsive drug use despite harmful consequences.

Tolerance: Reduced effect of a drug with repeated use, requiring larger doses.

Withdrawal: Unpleasant physical or psychological symptoms after stopping a drug.

Depressants: Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.

Alcohol Use Disorder: Addiction to alcohol marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and compulsive use.

Barbiturates: Depressants that induce sleep or reduce anxiety but can impair memory and judgment.

Opiates: Drugs derived from opium (e.g., morphine, heroin) that reduce pain and induce euphoria.

Stimulants: Drugs that increase neural activity and energy levels (e.g., caffeine, nicotine).

Nicotine: Addictive stimulant found in tobacco.

Cocaine: Powerful stimulant that produces temporary euphoria and increased energy.

Methamphetamine: Highly addictive stimulant affecting the central nervous system, increasing dopamine.

Ecstasy (MDMA): Synthetic drug that acts as a stimulant and hallucinogen, enhancing sensory perception and emotional connection.

Hallucinogens: Drugs that cause perceptual distortions and hallucinations (e.g., LSD).

LSD: Potent hallucinogen causing vivid visual and emotional distortions.

THC: Active ingredient in marijuana, producing mild hallucinations and relaxation.

Agonists: Substances that mimic neurotransmitters to stimulate receptor activity.

Antagonists: Substances that block or inhibit neurotransmitter activity at receptors.

Endorphins: Natural painkillers and mood enhancers produced by the brain.

Serotonin: Neurotransmitter involved in mood, appetite, sleep, and emotional regulation.
Central Nervous System (Brain and Spinal Cord): Processes information and coordinates responses.

Peripheral Nervous System: Connects the CNS to the rest of the body.

Autonomic Nervous System: Controls involuntary body functions (e.g., heart rate, digestion).

Sympathetic Nervous System: Activates fight-or-flight response during stress.

Parasympathetic Nervous System: Restores the body to a calm state after stress.

Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movements and transmits sensory information.

Neurons: Nerve cells that transmit information through electrical and chemical signals.

Glial Cells: Support, nourish, and protect neurons.

Reflex Arc: Simple, automatic response to stimuli, bypassing the brain.

Sensory Neurons: Transmit sensory information to the CNS.

Motor Neurons: Send signals from the CNS to muscles and glands.

Interneurons: Connect sensory and motor neurons within the CNS.

Neural Transmission: Process of sending signals between neurons.

Action Potential: Electrical impulse traveling down a neuron.

All-or-Nothing Principle: A neuron either fires completely or not at all.

Depolarization: When a neuron becomes more positive and closer to firing an action potential.

Refractory Period: Time during which a neuron cannot fire after an action potential.

Resting Potential: Stable negative charge of a neuron at rest.

Reuptake: Process of neurotransmitters being reabsorbed into the sending neuron.

Threshold: Minimum level of stimulation needed to trigger an action potential.

Multiple Sclerosis: Autoimmune disorder damaging the myelin sheath, affecting nerve signals.

Myasthenia Gravis: Chronic condition causing weakness in voluntary muscles.

Excitatory Neurotransmitters: Stimulate neurons to fire (e.g., glutamate).

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters: Prevent neurons from firing (e.g., GABA).

Dopamine: Neurotransmitter linked to reward, pleasure, and movement.

Serotonin: Affects mood, sleep, and appetite.

Norepinephrine: Involved in arousal and alertness.

Glutamate: Main excitatory neurotransmitter, involved in learning and memory.

GABA: Main inhibitory neurotransmitter, reduces neural activity and anxiety.

Endorphins: Natural painkillers and mood boosters.

Substance P: Transmits pain signals to the brain.

Acetylcholine: Involved in learning, memory, and muscle contraction.

Hormones: Chemical messengers released by glands into the bloodstream.

Adrenaline: Hormone that prepares the body for fight-or-flight.

Leptin: Hormone that signals fullness and regulates appetite.

Ghrelin: Hormone that stimulates hunger.

Melatonin: Regulates sleep-wake cycles.

Oxytocin: Hormone associated with bonding and social connection.

Agonists: Mimic neurotransmitters to activate receptors.

Antagonists: Block neurotransmitters from activating receptors.

Brain Stem: Controls basic life functions like breathing and heartbeat.

Medulla: Regulates vital functions such as heart rate and breathing.

Reticular Activating System: Controls arousal and wakefulness.

Reward Center: Brain area associated with pleasure and reinforcement.

Cerebellum: Coordinates balance, posture, and voluntary movements.

Cerebral Cortex: Outer layer of the brain involved in higher-level processing.

Limbic System: Regulates emotions, memory, and drives.

Thalamus: Relay station for sensory information.

Hypothalamus: Maintains homeostasis and regulates drives like hunger and temperature.

Pituitary Gland: "Master gland" controlling hormones and endocrine functions.

Hippocampus: Crucial for forming and retrieving memories.

Amygdala: Processes emotions, especially fear and aggression.

Corpus Callosum: Connects the two brain hemispheres for communication.

Occipital Lobes: Process visual information.

Temporal Lobes: Handle auditory processing and memory.

Parietal Lobes: Process sensory input like touch and spatial awareness.

Association Areas: Integrate sensory input with stored knowledge.

Somatosensory Cortex: Processes sensory information from the body.

Frontal Lobes: Involved in decision-making, planning, and voluntary movements.

Linguistic Processing: Brain’s handling of language and comprehension.

Higher-Order Thinking: Advanced cognitive processes like reasoning and problem-solving.

Executive Functioning: Planning, organization, and self-control.

Prefrontal Cortex: Regulates decision-making, judgment, and impulse control.

Motor Cortex: Controls voluntary muscle movements.

Split Brain Research: Studies of individuals with severed corpus callosum to examine hemispheric specialization.

Hemispheric Specialization: Different functions performed by the brain's left and right hemispheres.

Broca’s Area: Region controlling speech production.

Wernicke’s Area: Region controlling language comprehension.

Aphasia (Broca’s and Wernicke’s): Language disorders affecting speech production or understanding.

Contralateral Hemispheric Organization: Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body.

Plasticity: Brain’s ability to adapt and reorganize after damage.

EEG: Measures electrical activity in the brain.

fMRI: Tracks brain activity by measuring changes in blood flow.

Lesioning: Intentional or accidental damage to brain tissue for study or treatment.