The Complexity of psychological development

Psych 2025 SAC 2

Define development

refers to change in an organism (human or animal) that occur over time.

What is lifespan development

Development from birth through to and including old age. Covers both relatively permanent change which are common to all individuals, as well as changes which differ between individuals. Changes are either typical or atypical

To be considered a developmental change?

A change must be relatively permanent or ‘lasting’

The study of life span development covers both:

relatively permanent changes which are common to all individuals, as well as changes which differ between individuals

Two types of changes classified as

atypical - abnormal or typical - normal

Define emotional development 

involves changes in how an individual experiences different feelings and how these feelings are expressed, interpreted and dealt with

Example of emotional development

the way a two year old expresses anger versus a 60 year old.

Define cognitive development 

Cognitive development involves changes in an individual’s mental abilities, such as reasoning, problem-solving, decision-making, perception, learning, memory and use of language

Define social development

Social development involves changes in an individual’s relationships with other people and their skills in interacting with others, such as the ability to form and maintain close relationships with others in a group situation

Define physical development

Physical development involves changes in the body and its various systems, such as development of the brain and its nervous system, bones and muscles, motor skills, and the hormonal changes of puberty and menopause

Commonly used names of stages and estimates of their approximate time frames

infancy: birth–2 years

childhood: 2–12 years

adolescence: 12–20 years

early adulthood: 20–40 years

middle age: 40–65 years

older age: 65 years and beyond.

Developmental norms 

show the typical characteristics or abilities and expected levels of achievement associated with a particular age or stage of development

how are developmental norms compiled?

measuring characteristics or ability in a large representative sample of the population to whom the norm is relevant.

what do developmental norms provide?

a way of comparing individuals development with others in the same age group.

what is heredity?

involves the transmission of characteristics from biological parents to their offspring via genes at the time of conception

what is enviornment

environment refers to all experiences, objects and events which we are exposed throughout our entire lifetime.

Hereditary is Environment is

hereditary (nature) environment (nurture)

where does individual development begin?

genetic instruction

the environment interacts with our _________________

inherited potential.

example of environment interacts with our inherited potential

somebody may have schizophrenia genes, but may not actually develop schizophrenia until they experience a stressful major life event.

Biopsychosocial model is…

an approach to describing and explaining psychological development and wellbeing though the interaction of biological, psychological and social factors,

psychological factors include:

effects of prior experience

learning and memory

ways of thinking

attitude and beliefs

perceptions

emotions

resilience

coping skills

Social factors includes

interpersonal relationships

access to social support

social media

educational background

economic circumstances

access to health care

social stressors

ethnicity

cultural values and traditions

Biological factors

genes

age

male/female

race

brain chemistry

nervous system activity

hormones

disease

sleep patterns

bodily responses to stress

what are biological factors

involve physiologically based or determined influences, often not under control.

psychological factors

involve all internal, mental processes and influences

what are social factors

involve influences from external social environment in which we interact with others

The biopsychosocial model reflects:

a holistic view of development and wellbeing- the individual is considered as a whole person functioning in their unique environment. Recognising development is not only result of internal factors but also greatly

biological factors that could lead to a serial killer

These could include genetic predispositions, brain abnormalities, neurological issues, or hormonal imbalances that might influence violent or antisocial behavior

Psychological Factors that could lead to a serial killer

This includes early childhood trauma, personality disorders (e.g., antisocial personality disorder, narcissistic personality disorder), and other mental health issues

Social Factors that could lead to becoming a serial killer

The social environment is crucial in shaping an individual. Adverse childhood experiences (e.g., abuse, neglect, social isolation), dysfunctional family dynamics, or exposure to violence could contribute to the development of violent tendencies in adulthood. Additionally, social factors like culture, peer influences, or exposure to violent media might also have an impact.

what is an emotion? Define.

An emotion can be defined as a complex reaction pattern to a personally significant event or matter that involves a mixture of physiological responses, subjective feelings and expressive behaviour

what are the three elements of an emotion?

Generally referred to as psychological responses, subjective feelings and expressive behaviour.

what are subjective feelings? & example

Inner, personal experience of an emotion.

For example, how an individual experiences ‘being in love’

what is expressive behaviour?

The many overt expressions of behaviour which communicate emotions.
Expressive behaviour is an outward sign that an emotion is being experienced, behaviour may either be intentional or unintentional.

Emotions also expressed through changes in body posture.

What is a down side of observing expressive behaviour in order to read someone’s emotions?

Observation of expressive behaviour can lead to an inaccurate interpretation because people can sometimes hide their emotions by controlling their expressions

what are physiological responses

occur when we experience an emotion involving changes such as heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate eand perspiration.

What is an example of a physiological responses:

For example:

angry: heart rate increase.

What is attachment

the emotional bond which forms between an infant another person.

when do children typically develop a special attachment with their primary caregiver?

Between 6-8 months of age.

What is Ainsworth’s theory of attachment?

Ainsworth’s theory is the strange situation, a standardised test for measuring the attachment relationship a child has with their parent.

When is Ainsworth theory of attachment, the Strange Situation typically tested?

In infancy, between 9-18 months of age.

What happens during the strange situation?

The infant and caregiver are taken into an unfamiliar room containing some age-appropriate toys. Then the infant is exposed to a series of seperations and reunions involving the caregiver, the infant and a stranger.

what is stranger anxiety? (Mary Ainsworth theory of attachtment)

Stranger anxiety refers to the distress and uneasiness experienced by young children when they are around people who are unfamiliar to them. Typically begins at 8 or 9 months and lasts into the 2nd year.

What is seperation anxiety (the Strange Situation)

Separation anxiety is indicated by the distress and uneasiness when away from the person or people to whom they are attached. Most common between 6-10 months, but may also be experienced in the later years when seperated from a loved one.

List the 4 types of attachment (Mary Ainsworth)

• secure attachment

• insecure avoidant attachment

• insecure resistant attachment

• disorganised attachment

what is secure attachment?

An infant who has formed a secure attachment shows a balance between dependence and exploration. Infant uses caregiver as a “home” or safe base from which to explore from. When the caregiver returns, infant is enthusiastic and seeks physical contact with them.

what is insecure avoidant attachment

An infant that has formed insecure avoidant attachment does not seek closeness or contact with the caregiver and treats them much like a stranger. Infant rarely cries when caregiver leave the room, and ignores the caregiver upon their return. Research findings suggest this attachment type may be result of neglectful or abusive caregivers.

what is insecure resistant attachment?

Insecure resistant attachment is seen through infants when they appear anxious even when their caregiver is near. become very upset when separated from caregiver. When caregiver returns, infant approaches them, cries to be picked up , then squirms or fights to get free. Though to result from caregivers who are not very responsive to their infant’s needs.

Disorganised attachment

Disorganised attachment identified by Mary main and Judith Solomon is a form of insecure attachment where infants shoe inconsistent or odd contradictory behaviours during separation from and reunion which their caregivers.

In adulthood how does disorganised attachment present?

Disorganised attachment tend to find it difficult to have close relationships, to open up other or to seek out help or other forms of support.

Infant feels secure, loved and confident?

secure attachment

Infant is uncertain and anxious

insecure resistant attachment

infant is distant and protective of itself

Insecure avoidant attachment.

what is a surrogate?

Surrogate is anyone or anything which ‘substiutes for” or “plays the part of” something else

what was each surrogate mother monkey made of?

both were made of wire mesh, one was covered with terry-towelling cloth

what did Harry Harlow propose?

Harlow proposed that if an infant’s attachment to its mother was based primarily on feeding, the infants monkeys should have preferred and become attached to whichever surrogate mother had the bottle

Results of Harlow’s experiment.

Found that infant monkeys spent more time with the cloth surrogate than the wire surrogate.

Harlow concluded that

Harlow concluded that ‘contact comfort’, which was provided by the softness of the cloth covering, was more important than feeding in the formation of an infant rhesus monkeys attachment to its mother.

What is privation?

Privation is the absence of the opportunity to satisfy something that is needed or desired, in this Harlow’s experiment, the need for social contact.

what has Harlow’s experiments with rhesus monkeys enabled?

Harlow’s experiments with rhesus monkeys have enabled psychologists to better understand factors which influence attachment, and the effects of different attachment experiences on emotional and social development.

Can cognitive development be directly observed?

No. Infants and young children who have not yet sufficiently developed their language skills are unable to report what they are thinking or explain their actions. Therefore cognitive development must be inferred from observable behaviour.

What is adaptation (piaget)

Adaptation involves taking in, processing, organsing and using new information in way which enable us to adjust to changes in our environment

How does adaptation occur?

According to Piaget, adaptation occurs through two closely related processes, assimilation and accommodation.

What is assimilation?

Assimilation is the process of taking in new information and fitting it into and making it part of pre-existing mental idea about objects or experiences.

What is accommodation?

Involves changing pre-existing information (or mental idea) so the new information can be included.

What is schema?

Assimilation and accommodation also enable a child to form schema- a mental idea of what something is and how to act on it.

What did Piaget propose?

Piaget proposed that individuals do not develop the mental capabilities of a later stage without first having acquired those of an earlier stage. Furthermore, the rate at which each person passes through the stages may vary. 

According to Piaget (1952,1960) how many stages do we move through when developing our thinking and associated mental abilities.

According to Piaget 4 stages

Sensorimotor stage is…

Sensorimotor stage is the first stage from birth to about 2 years of age.
During this stage Infant explore and learn about the world primarily through their senses and motor activities. Typically after the first 3 months, most infants begin to integrate sensory and motor information and can start to coordinate their behaviour to grasp an object towards a noise.
At about the same time children learn to crawl they learn the concept of object permanence.

what is object permanence (piaget)

In the sensorimotor stage infants learn the concept of object permanence. Object permanence is the understanding that objects still exist even if they cannot be seen, heard or touched.

What are the main cognitive accomplishments of the sensorimotor stage in piaget theory of cognitive development.

Object permanence
Goal-directed behaviour

what is goal directed behaviour?

Goal directed behaviour is to perform and successfully complete a sequence of actions with a particular purpose in mind.

What is the pre-opertational stage?

Typically between the age of 2-7 years a child moves from the sensorimotor stage to the preoperational stage of cognitive development. In the preoperational stage, they become increasingly able to mentally represent objects and experiences. An important development during this stage is symbolic thinking.

What is symbolic thinking?

Symbolic think is an important development of the preoperational stage and is the ability to use symbols such as words and pictures to represent objects that are not physically present.

What is an example of symbolic thinking?

Pretend play is an example.

What is the egocentrism

The tendency to perceive the world solely from one’s own point of view.

what is animism, the thinking style that children in the pre-operational stage use?

Animism, the belief that everything that exists has some kind of consciousness. Piaget proposed that animism was linked to egocentric thinking.

what is transformation?

Transformation is a key cognitive development in the pre-operational stage. Transformation is the understanding something can change from one state to another.

what is centration?

The pre-operational child can focus only one quality or feature of an object or event at a time. This process is known as centration.

What is reversibility?

the ability to mentally follow a sequence of events or line of reasoning back to its starting point.

What are the main cognitive developments of the pre-operational stage?

Symbolic thinking
Egocentrism
Animism
Transformation
Centration

Reversibility

What is the concrete operational stage?

The concrete operational stage typically occurs between ages 7-12. The child is now capable of true logical thought and can perform mental ‘operations’. Mental operations can be applied to concrete objects or events that are present, therefore be touched, seen or experienced through the senses.

What is a mental operation?

A mental operation involves the ability to accurately imagine the consequences of something happening without actually needing it to happen.

What is conversation?

Conversation is a key cognitive accomplishment for a child in the concrete operational stage. Conversation refers to the understanding that certain properties of an object can remain the same even when its appearance changes.

What is Classification?

Classification is a key cognitive accomplishment of the concrete operational stage. Classification is the ability to organise objects or events into categories based on common features that set them apart from other categories.

List the main key cognitive developments of concrete operational stage

Mental operations

Conservation

Classification

If a child has understood that a liquid has maintained the same amount despite changing container size what developmental stage are they most likely in, and what is this understanding referred to as?

The child is most likely in the concrete operational stage and had the key cognitive accomplishment of conservation according to Piaget theory.

What is formal operational stage?

Is when more complex thought process are evident and a person’s thinking becomes increasingly sophisticated through combined effects of brain maturation and life experience. Typically happens when a person in 12 years of age.

What is abstract thinking?

Key cognitive accomplishment of the formal operational stage. Abstract thinking is a way of thinking that does not rely on being able to see, visualise, experience or manipulate in order to understand something.

An example of abstract thinking in the formal operational stage?

Being able to understand concepts of time and distance accurately. For example, how far 5000 kilometers really is.

Formal operational thinking also involves the ability to solve problems systematically, explain.

For instance, this happens when a person develops strategies to solve a problem in an ordely way.

What is deductive reasoning?

Deductive reasoning involves using logical rules to draw a conclusion from two or more pieces of information which are believe to be true.

During the formal operational stage idealistic thinking may also happen. What is idealistic thinking?

Idealistic thinking is often seen through adolescents, where they think about the most desirable characteristics and strive towards an ideal person for not only themselves but also for others. They can envisage alternatives to issues but sometimes without fully considering what is realistically possible in a given time frame.

List the four stage of piaget developmental theory and that ages they are suggested to occur

sensorimotor stage, birth to 2yrs

pre-operational stage 2-7 yrs

concrete operational stage 7-12

formal operational stage 12+

What is social behaviour?

Social behaviour is defined as any action that is influenced, directly or indirectly, by the actual, imagined, expected, or implied presence of others.

What is the reflex smile

the reflex smile is characterised by a simple turning up of the corners of the mouth

what is the social smile?

The social smile is a smile in response to social stimuli and typically appears at about 4-6 weeks of age, however it is not frequent or absolute until about 3 months of age, or so.

What is crying.

Crying at birth is believed to be a reflexive response with a survival function. Crying is also commonly used as an early form of communication, and provides the basis of social interaction and the formation of social relationships with others.

what is Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development?

His theory describes the impact of certain social and cultural experiences on our social, emotional and personality development at various stages of the entire lifespan.