Theories of Personality assessment

Section

what is personality

refers to the long-standing trait and patterns that propel individuals to think, feel, and behave

• what makes people unique

elements of personality

description - how people characterize an individual’s personality, examining differences

development - how an individual’s personality changes over their lifetime, influenced by biological factors and experiences

factors - quantitative dimensions used to describe personality encompassing a broad range of behaviors

individual differences - how people differ in terms if their personality traits, behaviors, and characteristics

Big Five model

1. neuroticism

2. extraversion

3. openness

4. agreeableness

5. conscientiousness

Personality theories

Framework and approaches that aim to understand individual characteristics, behavior, and development

• address the challenges of understanding personality in terms of description, dynamics, and development

Types

categories of people (e.g., introverts) with similar characteristics that are used to describe personality; each person belongs to one category, and there are no partial memberships within a category

traits

quantitative measures are used to describe personality; each trait focuses on a specific set of characteristics (e.g., openness to experience) and gives each person a score, indicating where they fall on a scale from low to high in that trait

biological influences

the impact of genetic factors and heredity on shaping an individual’s personality traits and characteristics

personality traits

refers to the consistent patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that characterize an individual across different situation and over time

• these traits help explain why people act in particular ways and how they respond to various life events

nomothetic

the approach looks for general rules or patterns that apply to many people. it tries to find common traits or behaviors by studying large groups

ideographic

the approach focuses on the unique aspects of an individual or a specific case. it aims to understand the detail and personal experiences of one person or small group

Three D’s of personality

1. description - how to characterize individuals

2. dynamics - motivation and adaptation

3. development - influences and changes

Personality Dynamics

The way people behave and react are shaped by factors such as motivation, adaptation or adjustment, cognitive processes, and culture

• Together, these elements create the unique blend of traits and tendencies that make up a person’s personality

• involve the process of adaptation and adjustment to life’s demands, greatly impacting psychological well-being

cognitive processes

the role of thinking in personality

• plays a pivotal role in shaping personality dynamics, with different theories emphasizing the significance of conscious and unconscious thought

culture

the role of social influence on personality, including gender, ethnic, and cultural differences

Adaptation and Adjustment

an individual’s way of coping with the world, of adjusting to demands and opportunities in the environment

Temperament

refers to consistent styles of behavior and emotional reactions that are present from infancy onward, presumably because of biological influences

experience

influences that each person develops toward his or her unique personality especially in childhood

reliability

refers to how consistent or dependable a measurement is over time and across different situation; it ensures that when we measure something repeatedly, we get similar results

reliability test types

• test-retest; measures consistency by giving the same test to the same group at different times

• alternate forms reliability: measures consistency by comparing different versions of the same test

• internal consistency: measures the extent to which items within a test are consistent in measuring the same construct

• inter-rater reliability: measures consistency by comparing ratings or judgements made by different raters or observers

• split-half reliability: measures consistency by comparing two halves of the same test

Validity

means that a test measures what is supposed to measure. It checks if the test is accurate and relevant

Validity tests

• test validity: checks if the test is accurately measuring what it’s intended to measure

• criterion validity: checks if the test can predict or relate to other known

• construct validity: check is the test accurately measures abstract qualities or concepts

direct self-report measures

people provide information about themselves directly. this information could come from surveys, questionnaires, interviews, or rating scales where individuals report on their own thoughts, feelings, or behaviors

Indirect measures

provide information about participants without directly asking them

• measuring or monitoring how people’s bodies react to something like a heart rate

behavioral measures

participant’s behaviors are observed in different situations. by observing their actions and behaviors, researchers can learn about participants’ habits, skills, and reactions without relying only on what they say

Objective measures

measurements that are clear and precise, like how tall someone is, or how much they weigh

Applied research

research that is conducted to solve real-world problems

basic research

research that is conducted to add to the scientific body of knowledge

correlational research

a research method in which scientists study carefully design and control experiments to understand how changes in one thing (the independent variable)

• research looks to examine a cause-effect relationship amongst personality variables

Phenotype

the sum of the observed characteristics of a person

experimental apporach

understanding personality development explores how experiences can be related to personality changes

psychoanalytic theorists

particularly those following Freudian theory, emphasize the critical impact of early childhood experiences on personality development

issues related to personality development

heredity, or genetics can influence personality traits by passing down physiological and psychological traits

• behaviors

• cognition

• emotional

• body part’s shape

Component of personality

personality refers to the long-standing traits and patterns that propel individuals to consistently think, feeling, and behave in specific ways

modern personality theory

often emphasize the dynamic interplay between cognitive processes and cultural influences

• these factors are seen as crucial in shaping personality by affecting how individuals perceive, interpret, and respond to their environment, as well as cultural norms and values that shape behavior and self-concept

ID

present from birth and contains our most primitive drugs or urges

• it directs impulses for hunger, thirst, and sex

• Freud believed that this operated on what he called the “pleasure principle”, seeking immediate gratification

superego

acts as our conscience, it is the moral compass that tells us how we should behave

• it strives for perfection and judges our behavior, leading to feelings of pride or feeling guilt

ego

operates on the reality principle; it is the rational part of our personality

• it is the part of our personality that is seen by others

• it’s job is to balance the demands of the id and the superego in the context of reality

neurosis

a tendency to experience negative emotions or anxiety disorders caused by imbalances in the psyche, often due to conflicts between the id and the superego

defense mechanism

the completion of specific developmental stages is essential in shaping an individual’s personality across the life span

Stages of Psychosexual Development

Freud’s theory of personality

the unconscious mind is more important than the conscious mind

• this premise underscores the profound influence of hidden desires, fears, and instincts in driving individual actions and shaping personality development

unconscious vs. conscious

the differentiation between mental processes and information that we are aware of (conscious) and those that are inaccessible and occur beyond our awareness (unconscious)

8 to Freud, the unconscious contains repressed, unacceptable urges and desires

carl jung

a Swiss psychiatrist and protégé of Freud; he developed his own theory: Analytical Psychology

• split away from Freud due to:

  • he didn’t accept that sexual drive was the primary motivators in a person’s mental life

  • he agreed with Freud’s concept of personal unconscious, but be thought it to be incomplete - he also focused on the collective unconscious thought, as well as experience within one’s personality

Analytical Psychology

the focus is working to balance opposing forces of conscious and unconscious thought, as well as experience within one’s personality

• according to Jung, this work is a continues learning process of becoming aware of unconscious elements and integrating them into consciousness that mainly occurs in the second half of life

collective Unconscious

a universal version of the personal unconscious, holding mental patterns, or memory traces, which are common to all of us

• offering a distinct perspective on personality theory that goes beyond the mainstream scientific models of his time

archetypes

ancestral memories - are represented by universal themes in various cultures, as expressed through literature, art, and dreams

• these themes reflect common experiences of people the world over, such as facing death, becoming independent, and striving for mastery

Self

the whole, integrated personality; is part of the self-realization process in the second half of life

extraversion and introversion

indicate whether energy is drawn from external sources or the inner psyche

Adaptive unconscious

the part of the unconscious mind responsible for automatic processes and quick decision-making

Individual differences

variations among individuals, including tendencies to be open to intuitive experiences and different psychological functions

person unconscious

part of the unconscious that holds an individual’s unique experiences and memories

repression

a defense mechanism where unacceptable urges and desires are pushed into the unconscious

self-realization

the process of achieving a deeper understanding of oneself and integrating unconscious elements into consciousness

Individual Psychology

focuses on our drive to compensate for feelings of inferiority

Inferiority Complex

characterized by a person’s feelings that they lack worth and do not measure up to the standards of others or of society

• feelings of inferiority in childhood are what drives people to attempt to gain superiority and that this is the force behind all of our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors

Social connections

seeing childhood development emerging through development rather than the sexual stages Freud outlined

fundamental social task

1. occupational tasks (careers)

2. societal tasks (friendship)

3. love tasks (finding an intimate partner for a long-term relationship)

Overview of Alder’s theory

• significantly contributed to the study of personality; his theory emphasizes the development of the self, interpersonal relationships, and the influence of social and cultural factors on personality

• his ideas were easier to scientifically test than Freud’s, making them valuable for understanding the complexities of human personality within the psychodynamic lens

• believed that early memories are not just random recollections but are significant in revealing a person’s current attitudes and their styles of life. these memories can provide insight into how individuals perceive and approach their world

cognitive processes

mental activities such as thinking, reasoning, and perceiving which play a crucial role in shaping personality

conscious experience and thought

awareness of ones thoughts and feelings, considered important in Adler’s psychology

individual differences

variations in personality, behavior, and motivations among individuals

• individuals differ in their ego strengths. males and females differ in personality because of biological difference

Stages of Psychological Development

Overview of Erikson’s theory

Encompassing the impact of social and cultural influences, it is a valuable lens for understanding personality development in the context of society

Each person develops within a particular society, which, through its culturally specific patterns of child rearing and social institutions, profoundly influences how that person resolves conflicts

The ego is concerned not only with biological (psychosexual) issues but also with interpersonal and cultural concerns ← Psychosocial

the Epigenetic principle

applies to the physical development of fetuses before birth (where it is easy to visualize the gradual emergence of increasingly differentiated parts) and to psychological development throughout life

• to be considered epigenetic, the example must 1) be influenced by environmental factors, and 2) be especially affected at the time when it emerges at the appropriate time for its development, that is, on Erikson’s timetable, which comes from his ideas of biological maturation

Karen Horeny’s theories

focused on the role of unconscious anxiety, suggested that normal growth can be blocked by basic anxiety stemming from needs not being met, such as childhood experiences of loneliness and isolation

Three types of coping (Horney)

1. moving towards people

   1. relies on affiliation and dependence

2. moving against people

   1. relies on aggression and assertiveness

3. moving away from people

   1. centers on detachment and isolation

Interpersonal Psychoanalytic theory

focusing on gender issues, cultural influences, and child-parent dynamics

• challenged freud’s focus on biology and sexual conflict and highlighted the role of unresolved interpersonal issues

Horney’s approach to therapy

• did not believe all psychoanalysis on the exploration of childhood origins of neurosis although she would doubtless agree that interpersonal relationships based on faulty parent-child interacting can be mended in therapy

object relations theory

a psychoanalytic approach based on Freud’s notion that mothers and others persons serve as the “objects” influencing personality development

Summary: freud’s classical psychoanalysis

• Provides an understanding of human behavior. Freud’s work highlights the significance of unconscious forces, early childhood experiences, intrapsychic conflict, and defense mechanisms, offering a rich perspective on personality development and the complexities of human behavior

Identify the strategies for dealing with intrapsychic personality conflict

Intrapsychic conflict, signaled by anxiety, is dealt with by the ego through a variety of defense mechanisms, including denial, reaction formation, projection, displacement, identification, isolation, rationalization, and intellectualization

The most healthy resolution of conflict is through sublimation, which produces creativity

Summary: Jung’s Analytical Psychology

Offers a unique perspective on personality; exploration of the unconscious, the structure of personality, the role of symbols, and the concept of synchronicity will broaden your understanding of the psychodynamic lens and its relance to the study of personality

Proposed a theory of personality in which the unconscious contains broad psychic energy, rather than simply sexual energy

Consciousness and the unconscious exist in a relationship of compensation

During the individuation process of adulthood, unconscious aspects of personality are developed and integrated with those of consciousness in development of a mature Self. In this process, the center of personality is shifted away from the ego

Summary: Adler’s Individual Psychology

Emphasizes conscious striving, birth order, and the influence of family in personality development. These concepts highlighted the importance of this lens in understanding the complexities of human personality

Psychodynamic Lens Myths

• Myth: psychodynamics theories are all about sexual and aggressive instincts

• Correction: encompasses a broader range of factors; they explore the interplay of conscious and unconscious mental processes, early childhood experiences, defense mechanisms, and the importance of interpersonal relationships

  • While instincts are part of these theories, they are not the sole focus, and contemporary psychodynamic theories have evolved to incorporate a wider rray of psychological phenomena

Anima and animus

key components of Jung’s view on the structure of personality

Psychodynamic perspective

a theory of personality, such as Freud’s, that emphasizes the role of unconscious forces and early childhood experiences in shaping personality

Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalytic Classical Psychoanalysis Concepts

• levels of consciousness

  • conscious, preconscious, and unconscious

• structures of personality

  • I