Foundations of psychology

Rationalism

Knowledge is innate and derived from within, logic, and reason (Plato, Descartes).

Empiricism

Knowledge arises solely from sensory experience and observation (Locke).

Skepticism

Encourages questioning reality; senses may deceive.

Substance Dualism

Descartes proposed the mind and body are distinct yet interacting substances.

Logical Positivism

A movement emphasizing that truth must be reduced to statements that can be verified.

Operationalism

Foundation for defining unobservable internal states via measurable operations.

Science

Not a thing, but a process or way of finding knowledge.

Scientific Criteria

Observations must be Systematic, Repeatable, and Objective.

The Scientific Method (Hypothetical-Deductive)

Start with Theory > Identify Gap > Formulate a Hypothesis (Prediction).

Null Hypothesis

Predicts no effect or relationship.

Alternative Hypothesis

Predicts a relationship or change.

Occam's Razor

Principle favoring the simplest possible explanations and theories.

Paradigms

A common, accepted method, theory, and way of explaining phenomena within a science.

Kuhn's Stages

Science progresses through stages: Pre-science, Normal Science, Crisis, Revolution.

Psychology's Status

Psychology uses scientific methods but lacks a single, coherent dominant paradigm.

German Education

Emphasized Wissenschaft (research/scientific study) and Bildung (personal development/education).

Psychophysics

The study of the relationship between physical stimuli and psychological perception.

Weber's Law

The smallest detectable difference in stimulus intensity is proportional to the magnitude of the original stimulus.

Fechner

Formalized methods to measure absolute and difference thresholds.

Mental Chronometry

Measures the time taken for mental processes using reaction time experiments.

Donders

Introduced the Subtraction Method (SRT > DRT > CRT).

Ebbinghaus

Investigated memory using nonsense syllables and introduced the Method of Savings.

William James

Established the first psychology course at Harvard in 1875.

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

Bodily changes accompanying an event are the emotion (e.g., increased heart rate > fear).

G. Stanley Hall

Founded the first American experimental lab (1883) and the APA in 1892.

Mary Whiton Calkins

Denied a Harvard degree because she was a woman; first woman president of the APA (1905).

B.F. Skinner

Operant Conditioning: Behavior is shaped by its consequences (reinforcement/punishment).

Cognition

All internal processes between input and output (Perception, Attention, Memory, Language, Problem-solving).

Piaget

Focused on Cognitive Development; argued children think qualitatively differently from adults.

Stroop Effect

Demonstrates competition between automatic reading and goal-directed cognitive control.

Lashley

Introduced the Serial Order Problem. Complex behaviors suggest mental planning is required, exceeding simple S-R chains.

Chomsky

Critiqued Skinner's view of language. Proposed an innate Language Acquisition Device and the idea of Deep vs. Surface Structure (meaning vs. form).

Miller

Identified the immediate memory capacity as the Magic Number 7 ± 2 chunks.

Broadbent

Proposed the Selective Filter Model of attention.

Gestalt Psychology

Core Idea: 'The whole of an experience is greater than the sum of its parts'. Critiqued reductionism.

Phi Phenomenon

Apparent motion illusion, basis of film.

Perceptual Principles

We impose structure using rules like Figure-ground, Closure, Similarity, Proximity, and Continuity.

Insight Learning

Köhler's apes showed sudden restructuring of the problem, not trial-and-error.

Kurt Lewin's Field Theory

States that behavior occurs in a 'life space' influenced by concurrent forces from the Person (needs, goals) and the Environment (social perceptions).

Humanistic Psychology

A reaction against the reductionism of behaviorism and psychoanalysis. Embraces Holism.

Maslow

Developed the Hierarchy of Needs (self-actualization).

Carl Rogers

Pioneered Client-Centered Therapy. Emphasized Empathy, Congruence, and Unconditional Positive Regard.

Francis Galton

Pioneer of mental measurement. Asserted intelligence was hereditary and wrote Hereditary Genius (1869).

Neural Recycling Hypothesis

Culturally acquired skills (like reading) 'recycle' evolutionarily older brain circuits.

Cross-Cultural Psychology

Highlights that psychological findings (often from WEIRD populations) do not always generalize worldwide.

WEIRD Bias

~96% of samples in top journals are from Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic populations.

Colonisation of the Mind

Occurs when Western therapy models invalidate a client's cultural or spiritual worldview, leading to psychological distress.

Indigenous Psychologies

Psychologies developed from the culture itself, using local languages, traditions, and religions.

Black Psychology

Uses frameworks influenced by the Black Church, emphasizing community, spirit, and collective healing.

Islamic Psychology

Roots date back to classical scholars (9th century onwards). Early treatments involved architecture, music, and spiritual practices.

Early Moral Treatment

Reformers like William Tuke and Dorothea Dix exposed neglect in asylums and campaigned for more humane care.

Kraepelin

Developed an early systematic nosology by grouping symptoms into distinct disorders.

DSM

Modern diagnostic manual, moving from a categorical view toward a dimensional view (severity, impairment).

Freud's Psychoanalysis

Pioneered talking therapy, influenced by cases like Anna O. Emphasis on unconscious drives and early childhood experiences.

Eysenck's Attack

Controversial analysis suggesting psychotherapy was no better than natural recovery.

Behavior Therapy

Based on conditioning principles. Systematic Desensitisation uses gradual exposure paired with relaxation to treat phobias.

Feminist Psychology

Aims to critique traditional (positivist) psychology and its methods.

1st Wave Feminism

Focused on securing women's right to vote and achieving global political equality.

2nd Wave Feminism

Focused on sexuality, reproductive rights, equal pay, and the right to work.

3rd Wave Feminism

Rejected artificial gender categories and sought to reclaim feminine aesthetics from associations with male oppression.

4th Wave Feminism

Characterized by digital feminism addressing oppression intersecting with various forms of discrimination.

5th Wave Feminism

Focuses on achieving political change by contesting elections and winning seats.