History: Ottoman Empire

What years did the Ottoman Empire exist?

1299 CE - 1922 CE

What regions did the Ottoman Empire cover at its height?

Much of the Middle East, southeastern Europe, and North Africa.

Which two sultans were significant in the expansion of the Ottoman Empire?

Selim I and Suleiman I.

What tax did non-Muslims have to pay under the millet system?

The jizya, a special tax.

How did the Ottomans treat refugees, such as the Jewish population expelled from Spain in 1492?

Sultan Bayezid II instructed Ottoman governors to take them in.

What was the Ottoman approach to non-Muslim citizens?

They preferred taxpayers over converts and aimed for the willing reversion of non-Muslim people to Islam.

What were the living arrangements in upper-class Ottoman houses?

Separate spaces for men (selamlik) and women (haremlik).

What was the typical structure of peasant houses in the Ottoman Empire?

Three rooms: one for sleeping, one for cooking, and one for sitting/dining.

What roles did women play in Ottoman peasant societies?

They were involved in growing crops, harvesting, and making textiles.

What rights did Muslim women have regarding divorce in the Ottoman Empire?

They could get divorced from abusive or financially negligent husbands.

What property rights did women have in the Ottoman Empire?

Women could manage and inherit property, and make decisions regarding their estates.

How were marriages typically arranged in the Ottoman Empire?

Marriages were arranged, and wives retained control of their property.

What was required for a woman to obtain a divorce in the Ottoman Empire?

She had to go to court with two witnesses to testify to her mistreatment or abandonment.

What was the role of Sufis in the Ottoman Empire?

Islamic mystics who emphasized a personal relationship with God and often established lodges with various facilities.

What was the primary goal of the Ottoman policies towards non-Muslims?

To create productive and law-abiding citizens rather than forcing religious conversion.

What is the Mevlevis brotherhood known for?

They are known as the Whirling Dervishes, who whirl in circles to gain mystic visions.

What role did coffeehouses play in Ottoman cities?

They were popular venues for men to socialize, discuss business and politics, and enjoy entertainment from comedians, dancers, and singers.

What was Sultan Murad IV's stance on coffeehouses?

He declared a coffee ban in 1633, believing they bred political dissent, and enforced it under penalty of death.

What types of goods were sold in Ottoman markets (bazaars)?

Olive oil, dates, coffee beans, sugars, silk, henna, and animal skins.

Who supervised the markets in Ottoman cities?

The Muhtasib, who ensured public business was conducted according to sharia law.

What was the Kulliye in Ottoman city life?

It was a complex surrounding a mosque that included Turkish baths, schools, markets, and kitchens.

What prompted the First Crusade?

The Byzantine Emperor sought help from the Roman Pope due to the Muslim Seljuks expanding their territory.

What was Sultan Mehmet II's view on the conquest of Constantinople?

He believed it was essential for the future and safety of the Ottoman state, as it protected enemies and incited them against the Ottomans.

What was the significance of Constantinople in 1453?

It was a strong Christian symbol and a key gateway for trade routes, including the Silk Road.

What was the outcome of the negotiations between Constantine XI and the Pope?

Constantine XI agreed to Church Union in exchange for military support against the Ottomans.

Who was Giustiniani and what role did he play in the defense of Constantinople?

He was a Genoese mercenary who arrived with 700 men to bolster the city's defenses.

What strategy did the Ottomans use to break through Constantinople's defenses?

They built Rumeli Castle to control the Bosphorus Strait and hired a Hungarian engineer to construct a massive cannon.

What was the outcome of the bombardment of Constantinople?

Constantine XI refused to surrender, leading to constant bombardment by Mehmet II's forces.

How did Giustiniani defend the walls of Constantinople?

He cushioned the walls with soft materials and rebuilt sections with rubble to prevent breaches.

What happened to the Ottoman navy during the siege of Constantinople?

It failed to prevent Christian ships from breaking the blockade and supplying the Byzantines.

What was the fate of Sultan Murad IV's coffee ban?

It was enforced with severe penalties, including execution for those caught drinking coffee.

What was the Muhtasib's role in the bazaars?

The Muhtasib was responsible for supervising trade and ensuring adherence to public conduct laws.

What strategic advantage did Trevisano defend at the Golden Horn?

The chain that Byzantines could raise to prevent Ottoman ships from entering.

What tactic did Mehmet II use to bypass the Byzantine defenses on April 22nd-23rd?

He ordered his navy to be moved over land to infiltrate the Golden Horn.

What was the result of Giustiniani's cavalry raids into the Ottoman camp?

They were effective but had to cease due to heavy casualties among the Byzantines.

What strategy did the Ottomans resort to when bombardment failed?

They began digging tunnels to weaken the walls of Constantinople.

How did Johann Grant counter the Ottoman tunneling efforts?

He flooded the tunnels with water or Greek fire.

What offer did Mehmet II make on May 21st regarding the surrender of Constantinople?

He offered that Constantine XI and his court could leave the city with their possessions.

What measures did Constantine XI take as food supplies dwindled?

He took control of the city's food supply to distribute it to the trapped citizens.

What event marked the fall of Constantinople on May 29th, 1453?

The Janissaries breached the walls and took the city, leading to a three-day sack.

What happened to Giustiniani and Constantine XI during the fall of Constantinople?

Giustiniani was mortally wounded, and Constantine XI died in battle.

What was the fate of Notaras and Orhan after the fall of Constantinople?

They were captured and executed.

What significant changes did Mehmet II implement after conquering Constantinople?

He made the city his capital, converted Hagia Sophia into a mosque, and encouraged diverse communities.

What was Pope Nicholas V's reaction to the fall of Constantinople?

He declared it a tragedy for all Christendom and urged a failed Crusade.

How long did Constantinople serve as the Ottoman capital?

Until 1922, when the empire was dissolved.

What demand did Mehmet II issue to the Byzantines before the siege began?

He demanded their peaceful surrender, which they refused.

What military strategies did Mehmet II employ during the siege of Constantinople?

He built Rumeli Castle to block aid and brought 60,000-80,000 soldiers, including elite Janissaries.

What was the significance of the cannon known as the Basilica?

It was effective in breaking through Constantinople's walls despite its limited firing capacity.

What defensive measure did the Byzantines take against Ottoman naval forces?

They pulled a heavy metal chain across the Golden Horn.

What happened to the Ottoman tunneling efforts?

They failed as the Byzantines discovered and countered the tunnels.

What was the size of the Byzantine defense force compared to the Ottomans?

The Byzantines had about 30,000 men, with only 5,000-7,000 being professional soldiers.

What was the outcome of the siege after 53 days?

Constantinople fell on May 29th, 1453.

What role did the Sultan and Grand Vizier play in the Ottoman bureaucracy?

The Sultan was at the apex, with the Grand Vizier often acting as the de facto leader overseeing policy.

What were the four main institutions of the Ottoman bureaucracy?

Imperial/Palace, Military, Administrative/Scribal, and Religious/Cultural.

What was the function of the Harem in the Ottoman Empire?

It served as a hub for power struggles and a training ground for female regents and advisors.

What marked the beginning of the Ottoman Empire's decline?

The second siege of Vienna in 1683.

What were some of the causes of the Ottoman Empire's decline?

Loss of territory, corruption, and military defeats, including against Napoleon.

When did the Ottoman Empire officially collapse?

In 1922, following World War I.

What stopped the Ottoman Empire from expanding into Europe?

The siege of Constantinople halted the expansion.

What was the millet system in the Ottoman Empire?

A system that allowed Christians and Jews to live in their own communities governed by their own laws.