Comprehensive Psychology: Sleep, Dreams, and Classical Conditioning

Circadian rhythm

Biological process cycling about every 24 hours regulating sleep, hormones, and body temperature; disruptions affect alertness and mood.

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

Brain region in hypothalamus that synchronizes the body's internal clock to light and dark cues.

Melatonin

Hormone from the pineal gland that rises at night and promotes sleep under SCN control.

Sleep

Reversible state of reduced responsiveness with brain-wave changes; supports restoration and memory.

Sleep rebound

Increased sleep intensity and quicker onset after deprivation.

Hormonal role in sleep

Growth hormone peaks in deep sleep; cortisol and melatonin vary by stage for restoration.

Freud's dream theory

Dreams represent disguised expressions of unconscious desires revealed through symbolic analysis.

Information processing theory of dreams

Dreams help consolidate memories and manage emotional experiences.

REM sleep

Stage with rapid eye movement, vivid dreams, and brain activity like wakefulness.

NREM sleep

Includes stages 1-3 with slower brain waves and less dreaming.

Stage 1 sleep

Light transition from wakefulness; heart rate and temperature drop; theta waves appear.

Stage 2 sleep

Characterized by sleep spindles and K-complexes; body slows further.

Stage 3 sleep

Deep slow-wave stage with delta waves and physical restoration.

REM sleep functions

Supports emotional regulation, memory, and learning through vivid dreaming.

Activation-synthesis theory

Dreams result from the brain interpreting random neural signals during REM.

Lucid dreams

State of dreaming with awareness and potential control over dream events.

Insomnia

Persistent difficulty falling or staying asleep causing fatigue and mood issues.

Somnambulism

Sleepwalking during deep NREM stages; managed by safety measures and stress reduction.

Night terrors

Intense fear episodes during deep sleep with confusion and little recall.

Sleep apnea

Repeated pauses in breathing during sleep leading to poor rest; treated with CPAP or surgery.

Narcolepsy

Disorder causing uncontrollable sleep attacks and cataplexy.

Substance use disorder

Compulsive drug use despite harm marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and loss of control.

Physical dependence

Body adapts to a drug and shows withdrawal when use stops.

Psychological dependence

Emotional craving for a substance to relieve distress.

Tolerance

Decreasing effect of a drug requiring higher doses for the same result.

Withdrawal

Physical or emotional discomfort after reducing or stopping a drug.

Depressant

Substance that slows central nervous system activity and induces relaxation or sedation.

Alcohol and GABA

Alcohol enhances GABA receptor activity, increasing inhibition and slowing reactions.

Alcohol effects

Impairs coordination and judgment; long-term use damages liver and brain.

Stimulant

Substance that increases neural activity and energy levels.

Cocaine

Blocks dopamine reuptake causing euphoria and alertness followed by crash.

Methamphetamine

Triggers dopamine release producing intense euphoria and high addiction risk.

Stimulant effects

Create energy and euphoria but cause dependence and mood issues with chronic use.

Opiate

Naturally derived drug from poppy plant such as morphine or codeine.

Opioid

Synthetic or natural substance acting on opioid receptors like heroin or fentanyl.

Heroin

Powerful opioid producing euphoria and dependence.

Methadone

Synthetic opioid used to treat heroin addiction by easing withdrawal.

Hallucinogens

Substances altering perception and producing sensory distortions such as LSD or psilocybin.

Ivan Pavlov

Discovered classical conditioning through experiments pairing stimuli with reflexes.

Classical conditioning

Learning process linking a neutral stimulus with a reflexive response.

Neutral stimulus (NS)

Stimulus that initially produces no response.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Naturally triggers a reflexive reaction.

Unconditioned response (UCR)

Automatic reaction to an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Previously neutral cue that triggers a learned response.

Conditioned response (CR)

Learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus.

Acquisition

Phase when association between CS and UCS forms.

Extinction

Weakening of a learned response when reinforcement stops.

Spontaneous recovery

Reappearance of an extinguished response after rest.

Stimulus generalization

Response occurs to stimuli similar to the conditioned one.

Stimulus discrimination

Response happens only to a specific conditioned stimulus.

Behaviorism

Psychology approach focusing on observable behavior and learning processes.

John Watson

Founded behaviorism and studied emotional conditioning.

Little Albert experiment

Demonstrated conditioned fear response to a white rat paired with loud noise.

Operant conditioning

Learning where behavior is shaped by consequences.

Edward Thorndike

Proposed the Law of Effect linking behavior and reward.

Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are more likely to recur.

B.F. Skinner

Developed operant conditioning and designed the Skinner Box.

Skinner Box

Chamber used to study behavior shaped by reinforcement and punishment.

Positive reinforcement

Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase a behavior.

Negative reinforcement

Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behavior.

Positive punishment

Adding an unpleasant consequence to reduce a behavior.

Negative punishment

Removing a pleasant factor to decrease a behavior.

Shaping

Reinforcing small steps toward a complex desired behavior.

Primary reinforcer

Stimulus satisfying a basic biological need.

Secondary reinforcer

Stimulus gaining value through association like money or praise.

Continuous reinforcement

Providing a reward after every desired response.

Partial reinforcement

Rewarding behavior intermittently to strengthen persistence.

Fixed ratio schedule

Reinforcement after a set number of responses.

Variable ratio schedule

Reinforcement after unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed interval schedule

Reinforcement for first response after a fixed time period.

Variable interval schedule

Reinforcement at unpredictable time intervals.

Cognitive learning

Acquisition of knowledge through mental processes like reasoning or insight.

Latent learning

Knowledge gained without reinforcement that appears when needed.

Observational learning

Acquiring behavior by watching and imitating others.

Modeling

Copying the behavior demonstrated by another individual.

Albert Bandura

Proposed social learning theory emphasizing imitation and cognitive influence.

Social learning theory

Idea that behavior is learned through observation and imitation.

Self-efficacy

Belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations.

Processes in observational learning

Attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.

Attention (observational learning)

Focusing on a model's behavior.

Retention (observational learning)

Remembering the observed behavior.

Reproduction (observational learning)

Performing the observed behavior.

Motivation (observational learning)

Desire to imitate based on expected rewards.

Vicarious reinforcement

Observing another being rewarded increases likelihood of imitation.

Vicarious punishment

Observing another being punished decreases likelihood of imitation.

Charles Spearman

Proposed general intelligence factor "g" underlying all abilities.

General intelligence (g)

Single underlying factor influencing cognitive performance.

Alfred Binet

Created first intelligence test to assess children's learning potential.

Lewis Terman

Revised Binet's test into the Stanford-Binet introducing IQ scoring.

David Wechsler

Developed modern IQ scales measuring verbal and performance skills.

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)

Test assessing various cognitive abilities in children.

Robert Sternberg

Proposed triarchic theory of analytical, creative, and practical intelligence.

Analytical intelligence

Problem-solving and logical reasoning ability.

Creative intelligence

Capacity for innovation and generating new ideas.

Practical intelligence

Skill in adapting to real-world challenges.

Emotional intelligence

Ability to recognize, understand, and regulate emotions effectively.

Howard Gardner

Proposed multiple intelligences theory emphasizing varied abilities.

Linguistic intelligence

Sensitivity to spoken and written language.

Logical-mathematical intelligence

Ability for reasoning and numerical problem-solving.

Musical intelligence

Skill in rhythm, tone, and sound patterns.