Developmental psychology
A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the lifespan
Nature vs. Nurture
-Nature: Innate biological factors that influence development and personality -Nurture: External and environmental factors, including learning, that influence development and personality
Continuity v. stages
Is development a gradual process or a sequence of stages?
Stability v. change
Stability implies personality traits present during infancy endure throughout the lifespan. In contrast, change theorists argue that personalities are modified by interactions with family, experiences at school, and acculturation
Germinal stage
first 2 weeks Conception, implantation, formation of placenta Fewer than half survive beyond this stage
Embryonic stage
2 weeks - 2 months Formation of vital organs and systems Most dangerous/harmful time for mother to use harmful substances because vital organs are being formed
Fetal stage
2 months - birth Bodily growth continues, movement capability begins, and brain cells multiply Age of viability - after 25 weeks (can exist outside of womb)
Maternal nutrition
Malnutrition linked to increased risk of birth complications, neurological problems, and psychopathology
Maternal drug use
Tobacco, alcohol, prescription, and recreational drugs Fetal alcohol syndrome causes face misproportions
Teratogens
Agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo and fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
Grasping reflex
Babies grab something in their palm like a finger
Rooting reflex
Baby will turn towards your hand when you brush their cheek or mouth Helps babies find bottle or nipple for feeding
Cephalocaudal trend
head to foot development babies can move their heads before their feet
Proximodistal trend
center to outward babies can move their limbs before developing fine motor skills
habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.
maturation
biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience
longnitudinal study
study the same subject/group over time Pro: Allows you to avoid confounding factors Con: people may drop out, takes longer
Cross-sectional study
studying different groups of different ages/characteristics at the same time Pro: Immediate and easier Con: Possible confounding variables Generational differences Events that happen in people’s lives Nature vs nurture
Differences in Temperments of Babies (Kagan & Snidman, 1991)
-Inhibited: 15 - 20% -uninhibited: 25 - 30%; become stable over time, genetically based
Mary Ainsworth
-created the strange situation (1979) and studied patterns of attachment -secure, anxious-ambivalent, and avoidant attachment
Secure attachment
-from strange situation experiment by Ainsworth -Indicative of authoritative parenting style, 70% of infants, distressed when mom leaves, happy when she comes back
Anxious-ambivalent attachment
-from strange situation experiment by Ainsworth -Indicative of authoritarian parenting style, distressed when separated from the caregiver but does not feel reassured when the caregiver returns, 15%
Avoidant attachment
-from strange situation experiment by Ainsworth -Indicative of hands off parenting style, doesn't care about mom and is equally comfortable with a stranger, 15%
Erik Erickson
-Eight stages spanning the lifespan -Psychosocial crises determine balance between opposing polarities in personality -Key challenge is forming a sense of identity
Visual Cliff Experiment
Jean Piaget
studied children to understand how children acquired knowledge and skills; cognitive development
schema
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
assimilation
interpreting one's new experience in terms of one's existing schemas
accomodation
adapting one's current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
object permanence
the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived, Piaget thought iy developed at 2 years of age
Representational thought
whenever one thinks about his or her surroundings using images or language
conservation
the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects, develops between ages 7-11
egocentrism
iin Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view “Why does the sun shine?” “So I can play outside!”
theory of mind
people's ideas about their own and others' mental states- about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behavior these might predict
sensorimotor stage
coordination of sensory input and motor responses; development of object permanence Birth-2 years
preoperational stage
development of symbolic thought marked by irreversibility, centration, and egocentrism 2-7 years
concrete operational stage
children gain mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events, mastery of conservation 7-11 years
formal operational stage
people begin to think logically about abstract concepts; logical systematic thinking 11-adulthood
stranger anxiety
the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age
Imprinting
the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life
attachment
an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation
Surrogate monkey experiment
Harry Harlow (1971) found that the baby monkeys preferred to cling to the terry cloth surrogate even when food was provided by the wire surrogate, comfort and stability over food
critical period
an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development
Erikson Stage 1
Trust vs mistrust Is my world predictable and supportive? First year of life
Erikson Stage 2
Autonomy vs shame and doubt Can I do things myself or do I rely on others? Second and third years of life
Erikson stage 3
Initiative vs guilt Am I good or bad? Fourth through sixth years
Erikson stage 4
Industry vs inferiority Am I competent or worthless? 6-puberty
Erikson stage 5
Identity vs confusion Who am I and where am I going? adolescence
Erikson stage 6
Intimacy vs isolation Do I share my life or live alone? early adulthood
Erikson stage 7
generativity vs self-absorption Will I produce something of value? middle adulthood
Erikson stage 8
Integrity vs despair Have I lived a full life? Late adulthood
Kholberg
Studied moral development
Preconventional level
Before age 9, children act out of self-interest (not wanting to get in trouble) Stage 1: Obedience and punishment Right vs wrong determined by what you get away with Stage 2: Instrumental relativists Right vs wrong determined by reward
Conventional level
Begins in early adolescence (older children, adolescents, and most adults) cares for others and upholds laws and social rules simply because they are the laws and rules (social approval) Stage 3: Good boy/nice girl Right vs wrong determined by approval of others Stage 4: Authority Right vs wrong determined by infallible laws
Postconventional level
Follows own set of ethical principles, only select few reach this level of morality (MLK, Ghandi, Hitler); Rare with adolescents and few adults Stage 5: Social contract Right vs wrong determined by fallible laws, flexible Stage 6: Universal ethics principle Right vs wrong determined by personal abstract principles using many perspectives
Sigmund Freud
studied psychosexual development
Oral stage
Pleasure focused on mouth First 18 months Oral Receptive: oral fixation leads to biting and smoking, passive, needy, sensitive Oral aggressive: oral fixation leads to verbal aggression
Anal stage
Pleasure focused on functions of elimination 1.5-3 years Anal retentive: strict toilet training, obsessively clean, controlling, possessive Anal expulsive: lax toilet training, leads to poor organization and possibly aggression
Phallic stage
Pleasure focused on genitals 3-6 years Issues can lead to vanity and impulsiveness
Latency stage
Sexual thoughts repressed, child focuses on social and intellectual skills 6-puberty Issues can lead to immaturity and relationship issues
Genital stage
Sexual desires are renewed, seeks relationships with others puberty-adulthood Issues can lead to self-obsessiveness
Authortatian parenting
High control with little warmth, no discussions Aim to cultivate hard work, respect, and obedience Produces overachievers
Authoritative/democratic parenting
High control and high warmth Set rules but allow discussions Best style in theory
Permissive parenting
Warmth but little control Less rules and punishments Children struggle with independence
Neglectful parenting
No warmth or control May meet physical needs but nothing else Children struggle with basically everything
Pubescence/Puberty
the process of physical changes through which a child's body matures into an adult body capable of sexual reproduction
Primary sex characteristics
Reproductive organs + genitalia
Secondary sex characteristics
Traits that develop at puberty Examples: breasts, menarche, voice changes, body shape
Menarche
First occurrence of menstruation Early menarche leads to more distress and emotional difficulty with transition to adolescence
Spermarche
First occurrence of sperm production Late spermarche leads to distress and emotional difficulty with transition to adolescence
Adolescence neural changes
Increasing myelinization (faster connections) Synaptic pruning (reshaping neurons) Changes in prefrontal cortex (decision making)
Maturation
biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience Maturation differs between sexes Girls who mature early, boys who mature late experience emotional distress with transition to adolescence
James Marcia
studied Identity statuses and development
Identity diffusion
Absence of struggle for identity with no obvious concern about it
Identity Foreclosure
Unquestioning adoption of parental or societal value
Identity Moratorium
Actively struggling for a sense of identity
Identity acheivement
Successful achievement of a sense of identity
Fluid intelligence
Ability to reason, learn, think abstracly and solve problems Decreases with age
Crystallized intelligence
Prior learning and past experiences, based on facts Increases with age
Menopause
the time of natural cessation of menstruation Estrogen decreases