Psychology content Language, Thought and Communication

aqa gcse

What does Piaget suggest?

We learn new info by developing schemas

Thought first, language after

Language depends on thought

Eg a child becomes aware there’s a four-legged, furry and barking thing and has a schema for it. After, they learn its a dog.

Language depends on thought (Piaget)

Children develop language by matching the right words to their knowledge of the world. Their understanding of the concept comes first(schema)+then they learn how to express their understanding of it.

Young children

Cognitive development leads to growth of language, meaning we can only use language at a level which matches our cognitive development. A child can still have language without understanding, but can’t use it effectively.

Language development

kids develop language ability through Piaget’s stages.

SS/PS/CS/FS

Sensorimotor stage: language development

Babies begin to develop schemas as as they learn to coordinate motor+sensory info

Pre-operational stage: language development

Children can voice internal thoughts, with limited language use. Language is egocentric

Logical thinking: which stages does this relate to

Concrete operational

Formal operational

Concrete operational: language ability

Language becomes more logical+decentered

Formal operational: language ability

Children can speak in abstract terms

Not everyone reaches this stage

Piaget’s theory strength

Supporting evidence. Cromer found that early language development isn’t random. When a child begins talking, they use 2-word phrases like ‘mummy sock’, suggesting children have understanding between objects+people. Implies children start to use language only when they have developed the right schema.

Piaget’s theory weakness

Contradicting theories. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests opposite. This is supported by cross-cultural studies too as if someone is raised in a culture where there’s no language to describe an idea, the person can’t think about it. Contradicts Paige, suggesting there’s times when language may come first.

What does Sapir-whorf hypothesis suggest

Language comes first then thought

Thought depends on language

There are 2 versions: strong+weak

Strong version of Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

Language determines thought. If in a language there’s no words to describe a thought/object, then a person speaking the langue will have no way of thinking about it.

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Eg, Eskimo language: have 27 words for snow: shows how language+culture are linked: Inuit people can see snow in varied ways: vs english only in limited ways

Weak version

Language influences thought. Means people can still imagine things even if they don’t have the words to describe this thought/object.

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The preferred version is the weak

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Eg, Inuit people have a word for ‘soft snow on the ground’ but English ppl can still imagine what this would look like, without specific word

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis strength

explains link between language+intelligence. Bernstein said that working-class kids use restricted codes+children’s intelligence is influenced by the language they hear+speak. W-C children will fall behind in school as the restricted code they use will negatively affect their thinking. This supports the idea that language influences thought.

Sapir-whorf hypothesis weakness

Cultures having more words doesn’t mean words come first. S+W didn’t consider why there’s culture differences in language. Perhaps the inuit language reflects their environment: snow- language would’ve led them to make finer distinctions between snow. Suggests language develops as of the way we perceive our environment+thus thoughts come first, as Piaget suggests.

Whorf: Native American cultures

he investigated the hypothesis of language influencing thoughts by studying Native American cultures

He was interested in the language spoken by the Hopi Indians

Native Americans: the Hopi

Whorf compared Hopi Language to languages eg English+French.

They:

* don’t distinguish between tenses when speaking about events
* They describe time only from the view of themselves, eg, instead of saying i left after a week, they’d say the 7th day

Interpretations: unable to refer to time passing, influencing their thoughts on time

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\-: evidence is a case study of only one individual, Naquayouma

Language affects recall of events

The way smth is described can influence the way we remember it

Carmichael found that memory of pictures are influenced by the verbal label the participants had heard proving the SW hypothesis

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\-: Ambiguous task used

Variation in recognition of colours

Studies testing SW hypothesis have tested the recognition+recall of colours, eg from Native American Cultures

Native Americans: the Zuni

Brown+Lennberg studied Zuni people

Argued if a basic word is absent from a language this affects how easily the colour is recognised

Found Zuni only had one word for yellow+orange shades

Found Zuni had difficulty recalling these colours vs English people

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Suggests difficulty distinguishing between yellow+orange is as of a lack of words for them in the Zuni Language

\-: Participants may have misunderstood task due to diff cultures

Language affects recall of colour

Robertson studied Berinmo people who live in forest setting

They have 5 colour names

When tested, could only recall colours that matched their colour names. Couldn’t distinguish colours that weren’t separate within their language, eg green+blue

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Shows that cognitive processes- recall+recognition- are influenced by language, supporting SW

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\-:Researchers have found different results: Dani people had no problem matching colour despite having only 2 words for colour

Human+animal communication: Von Frisch’s bee study

Studied activity of honey bees.

Animal communication

Von Frisch Aim

describe the dances bees perform+explain how they’re used for communication

Von Frisch Method

Used controlled experiments, changing aspects of bees environment to study how this changed behaviour. He made more than 6000 observations

Von Frisch Results

Bees would communicate where honey sources were through a dance: Waggle dance (figure of 8 points direction)+ Round dance( moving in circle to show pollen less than 100m away)

Von Frisch conclusion

Bees have a sophisticated form of animal communication which has evolutionary value

Von Frisch strength

Important contribution to science. His work’s based on careful observations. He added to our knowledge of animal communication, and his work was highly celebrated: Nobel prize. Shows how valuable his contribution to science was, and it’s scientific value

Von Frisch weakness

Overlooks importance of sound. Esch found when bees perform dance in silence, other bees wouldn’t go on to food sources: worker bees normally make sounds during their dance+ so may be another communication form. Thus shows VF might’ve overestimated the importance of the dance+ignored other relevant communication signals.

Animal communication

Exchange of info between animals within the same species using.a variety of signals

Functions of animal communication

* Survival
* Reproduction
* Territory
* Food

Survival

To increase an animal’s survival and that of its offspring.

Eg vervet monkeys make certain sounds of particular danger warnings: they have different alarm calls for different predators

Warning increases survival chance: it enables them to run+hide

Reproduction

Attracting mates: animals use mating displays to signal to species they want to mate, eg peacocks stretches out its plumage

Territory

Animals mark territory using signal of scent marking, eg, by spreading urine and faeces, discouraging other animals from invasion.

Eg: White rhinos lay dung in piles to mark terrify

Food

Animals use signals to draw attention to food.

Some use pheromones: animals release it and it is a chemical detected by other members of the species to follow.

Properties of human communication not present in animal communication

Plan ahead and discuss future events

Creativity

Single vs multiple channels

Plan ahead+discuss future events

Humans can discuss things beyond present tense

Human language enables communication in abstract terms

Vs animals who tend to focus on things that’s physically present in environment, eg food+prey

Creativity

Animals: more restricted in how they use their signals: it’s a close system: the communications only refer to specific events.

Human communication however is an open system

Single vs Multiple channels

Human language can be expressed using a whole range of different methods/channels: different systems.

However, Animal communication use single channels+are limited in their vocal sounds.

Communication

The passing of info from one person to another

Verbal communication

The use of words as a way of expressing one’s thoughts

Non-verbal communication

Exchanging info without words.

Eye contact roles

Regulating flow of conversation

Signalling attraction

Expressing emotion

Regulating the flow of conversation

Makes conversation run smoothly by giving the other person feedback abt the listeners level of interest+emotional state

Eye contact is important in encouraging turn-taking in conversations (Kendon)

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Signalling attraction

Our level of eye contact may increase when we are up close, and talking to someone we like+we dilate pupils when attracted.

People who use eye contact are judged as more attractive (Conway et al)

Expressing emotion

People use eye contact as a way of expressing emotion- particularly how intense the emotion that they’re feeling is.

Participants judged emotions as more intense if faces looking straight at them (adams+Kleck)

Non verbal communication: eye contact: strength

It can explain import features of autism. People with autism find it harder to read communication with others. This suggests people with autism could be taught to increase their eye contact in order to help them manage social situations better, +improving their life quality, so it has real word application.

Non-verbal communication: Eye contact: weakness

eye contact studies use rating scales to make judgments. Conway made use of rating scales to make judgements about attractiveness. They are a subjective measure+open to bias. Thus eye contact studies don’t make objective evidence that can be applied to everyone.

Non-verbal communication: Body language

Includes how attitudes and feelings are communicated to others through movement+gestures.

facial expressions

Gestures

Posture

Open posture

relaxed+shows approval and acceptance.

Eg without arms and legs crossed

McGilney: arguments given by person with open posture led to greater opinion change vs closed.

Closed posture

shows rejection+disagreement

Arms and legs crossed

Postural echo

A similarity/mirroring of body positions by people in social interactions. Suggests friendliness

Tanner et al: Participants rated new drink more highly when presented with postural echo

Touch

Physical contact: handshakes/high-fives/pat on back

Fisher: if library touched student on hand when returning books, they were judged postively

Non-verbal communication: body language: evaluation

Body language studies can be applied to real-word situations. It has aided mental health training practitioners who’ve attempted to build a rapport with clients to help them feel relaxed with them, showing research has allowed people to build good relations in the wider world

Non-verbal communication: body language: weakness

In body langauge studies, EVs aren’t always controlled. There may be other reasons people dis/liked the confederate. Eg, library study: there was no attempt to control other NV communication aspects like smiling, which could have affecting participant’s opinion on confederate. Thus touch may not have been the only reason of the results, so lacks internal validity.

Non-verbal communication: Personal Space

distance we keep between ourselves+others in everyday life.

It’s flexible

Can be affected by:

Culture

Gender

Status

Cultural differences

Different cultural norms for personal space.

Sommer: English ppl personal space around 1m, and Arabs is less

Gender differences

Men+man prefer a larger social distance vs women+woman

Bryne: found men prefer to sit opposite+ women prefer to sit to side

Status differences

Status: someone’s position within society

Zahn: People with similar status stand closer than unequal status

Non-verbal communication: personal space: strength

Its research has RW application. It’s taught us how to interact in everyday life; understanding cultural+gender differences in personal space helps us avoid offending people in everyday life. This thus means it reduces misunderstandings between people in the real world.

Non-verbal communication: Personal space: weakness

Its research studies only look at 1 factor at a time. Bryne focused only on 1 factor. Realistically, several factors can affect PS at the same time. Thus such studies are limited and simplistic+can affect iV.

Non-verbal behaviour: Darwin’s evolutionary theory

A theory of natural selection: genes for any behaviour that improves chances of survival are passed on. They give individuals genetic advantages.

Non verbal communication as evolved and adaptive

NV communication had evolved in animals as a way of expressing emotions.

Eg baring teeth as a sign of aggression to scare intruder

It promotes survival: so adaptive

Comparisons with human behaviour

can be applied to human non-verbal behaviours

Eg wrinkling nose when smth smells bad: means that animal can prevent breathing in smth potentially dangerous

Serviceable habits

Some behaviours may not have the same advantages as they once did

Eg baring teeth with aggression

Darwin evaluation strength 1

There’s supporting cross-cultural research. Ekman: identified 6 primary emotions, and showed they’re associated with the same expressions in every culture, showing it is nature: these behaviours are to do with genes.

Darwin strength 2

More research showing NVB is innate. New born babies studies show they can smile+hold eye contact:+crying is non-verbal. They haven’t had the nurture or upbringing yet, showing NVC must be nurture.

NV behaviour: Yuki’s study aim

To investigate the differences in interpret ion of emoticons between Japanese and Americans.

Yuki method

Cross cultural study. All presented 6 emotions which had different combinations of eyes and mouths: some happy, neutral and sad. They rated each emotion for happiness using a 9-point scale.

Yuki results

Japanese: gave higher ratings to happy eyes

Americans: gave higher ratings to happy mouths

Yuki conclusion

There’s cultural differences in how emotions are interpreted+facial expressions. Japanese focus on eyes+US focus on mouths.

Yuki evaluation weakness

Only tested 2 types of emotions: H+S. IRL, there’s a variety of facial expressions (+example). The fact that Japan were more likely to focus on eyes with H+S can’t be applied to all a motions. So study doesn’t give insight to how the full range of emotions are interpreted in diff cultures.

Yuki evaluation weakness

Used a rating scale. As emotions are complex, using rating scales may mean its an oversimplification of how we understand+interpret facial expressions. Judgements are reduced to a single number to represent happiness, when really, there are more effecting factors. Means Yuki may have measured this too simplistically.

Evidence that non-verbal behaviour is innate: neonate research

New born babies research. The younger a child shows NVCs, suggests that the behaviour is more likely to be innate.

Evidence that non-verbal behaviour is innate: social releases

research has found that babies facilitate attachement from their caregiver by giving off social releases: this increases the chances of bonding+being taken care of

Evidence that non-verbal behaviour is innate: Facial expressions

babies can display facial expressions. A study found when babies are given sour things, they make a disgusted face like adults, showing it must be innate as there’s been no nature.

Evidence that non-verbal behaviour is innate: Sensory deprived

Infants blind/deaf at birth cannot imitate some forms of communication. A study found that there were similarities between sensory deprived children and non in facial expressions.

Evidence that non-verbal behaviour is learned (cross cultural research): Contact vs non-contact cultures 

Contact cultures: latin American

Non-contact cultures: USA and UK

Contact countries prefer smaller personal space. As behaviour isn’t consistent, suggests it’s due to culture+nurture

Evidence that non-verbal behaviour is learned: gestures

hand gestures have different cultural meanings.

Pointing in western is normal, however it’s rude so they point with thumbs

Explaining cultural differences in behaviour

social learning theory says we imitate behaviours around us