AP Psych Unit 3 V2

ecological systems theory

A theory of the social environment's influence on human development using five nested systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.

stranger anxiety

The fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age.

attachment

An emotional tie with others, shown in young children by their seeking closeness to caregivers and showing distress on separation.

imprinting

The process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life.

strange situation

A procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment where a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while their caregiver leaves and returns.

secure attachment

Demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore their environment in the presence of their caregiver.

insecure attachment

Demonstrated by infants who display clingy, anxious attachment, avoidant attachment, or disorganized attachment.

temperament

A person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.

basic trust

According to Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy, formed during infancy by appropriate experiences.

self-concept

All our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, answering the question, 'Who am I?'

identity

Our sense of self; Erikson states that the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles.

social identity

The 'we' aspect of our self-concept that comes from group memberships.

intimacy

In Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in young adulthood.

emerging adulthood

A period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties when individuals are no longer adolescents but have not fully achieved independence.

social clock

The culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.

learning

The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors through experience.

associative learning

Learning that certain events occur together, which may involve two stimuli or a response and its consequence.

stimulus

Any event or situation that evokes a response.

respondent behavior

Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

operant behavior

Behavior that operates on the environment, producing a consequence.

cognitive learning

The acquisition of mental information through observation, watching others, or language.

classical conditioning

A type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli, generating a conditioned response.

behaviorism

The view that psychology should be an objective science studying behavior without reference to mental processes.

neutral stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

unconditioned response (UCR)

An unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus.

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers an unconditioned response.

conditioned response (CR)

A learned response to a previously neutral (now conditioned) stimulus.

conditioned stimulus (CS)

An originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response.

acquisition

The initial stage in classical conditioning when a neutral stimulus begins triggering a conditioned response.

higher-order conditioning

A procedure in which a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus.

extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus does not follow the conditioned stimulus.

spontaneous recovery

The reappearance, after a pause, of a weakened conditioned response.

generalization

The tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

discrimination

The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with it.

preparedness

A biological predisposition to learn associations that have survival value.

operant conditioning

A type of learning where behavior is strengthened by reinforcement or weakened by punishment.

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, while those followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

operant chamber

A chamber used in operant conditioning research containing a device that animals can manipulate for reinforcement.

reinforcement

Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows in operant conditioning.

shaping

An operant conditioning procedure where reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of the desired behavior.

discriminative stimulus

A stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement.

positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus.

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus.

primary reinforcer

An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one satisfying a biological need.

conditioned reinforcer

A stimulus that gains reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer.

reinforcement schedule

A pattern defining how often a desired response will be reinforced.

continuous reinforcement schedule

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule

Reinforcing a response only part of the time, resulting in slower acquisition but greater resistance to extinction.

fixed-ratio schedule

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

variable-ratio schedule

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

fixed-interval schedule

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

variable-interval schedule

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

punishment

An event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.

instinctive drift

The tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns.

cognitive map

A mental representation of the layout of one's environment.

latent learning

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

insight learning

Solving problems through sudden insight; contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

observational learning

Learning by observing others; also known as social learning.

modeling

The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

mirror neurons

Neurons that fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so, enabling imitation and empathy.

prosocial behavior

Positive, constructive, helpful behavior.

antisocial behavior

Negative, destructive, harmful behavior.