Congress and models of representation

Who do House members represent?

State districts

Who do Senators represent?

The whole state

What is the traditional model of representation?

House representatives act more like delegates focusing mor eon the ‘folks back home’ whilst Senators act more as trustees with more experience (30 age requirement) - all still have to listen to their constituents

How do representatives engage with their constituents?

• Representatives keep in touch with constituents via email, phone and letters

• When they return to the states they hold town hall meetings, visit around the state, appear in local radio and tv, address key groups and visit local schools

How do they fulfil the representative function?

• Voting on key issues on behalf of their constituency

• Membership on Standing Committees of particular interests to their constituents

• Performing casework

• Trying to get money for projects which benefit their states or districts

What did Lisa Murkowski do in 2021 in order to secure key funding for her state?

She offered support to Biden for the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (2021) by securing $3.5 billion for Alaskan roads

What is pork barrel politics?

Refers to national government politicians spending huge amounts of money in their local voting districts to encourage voter to re-elect them

What is earmarking?

This is when representatives add sections to bills which benefits their district or state in return for their support for the bill, in order to win favour and attract popularity

How much was spent due to earmarking in 2022?

$1.5 trillion

Who attacked the most earmarking in 20222 and how much did that total to?

Senate majority leader Charles Schumer was attached to 59 earmarks totalling to $80 million

Who does earmarking disproportionally impact?

It aids incumbents as they can use it to boost their reputation

What is the positive of earmarking?

It aids representations as funds can be directed to areas that need it most. The closeness of congressmembers to their constituents allows them to fit their needs better than the federal govt who would more likely waste money.

What are the negatives of earmarking?

Some argue that earmarking is bad for democracy as it can become an incentive for lobbyists which can give certain groups and advantage and it can encourage wasteful spending. It might force bills to only pass for earmarking for return (legislative function damaged)

What is descriptive representative?

The belief that those elected should represent economic or social groups within the wider community. This can be aided through pressure groups of lobbyists who represent the views of minorities.

Which party and what parts of the US have the most women representatives?

The north-east and western states - the Democrats in state legislators and Congress

How much of the representatives in the 2016 Congress were women?

20.2%

How much of the representatives in the 2024 Congress were women?

29.2% Ho

Hoe many female governers have their been in US history?

55 as of 2025

What is the trend of women representatives?

Its increasing at a state and congress level but it doesn’t match the population of almost 50% female

In the 2018 midterms hoe many women made up Congress?

1/4

Who was the first female senator for Alabama in 2022?

Katie Britt

How many African-American congressmembers are there currently and how many were there in 2001?

• 66 currently (2024)

• 36 in 2001

What is the trend with African American representation in Congress?

It reflects the 13% African American population

What percentage of the population is Hispanic in the US?

19%

How many Hispanic representatives were there in 2001 and how many are there now?

• 2001 - 19 representatives

• 2025 there’s 53 (down from 2023 when there was 54)

What is the trend of Hispanic representation in Congress?

Still doesn’t reflect the population size

What is the trend of LGBT+ congressmembers?

Currently 13 members of Congress which is a large increase from low levels of 4-7 in the 2010s

Who is the first openly transgender congressmember in 2024?

Sarah McBride

What percentage of Congressmembers have college degrees comparing to the US population?

99% of the Senate and 94% of the House - only 44% of the population have a college degrees.

Why does Congress struggle to be massively diverse?

The higher rates of incumbency, the levels of gridlock, the dominance of two parties, the lack of national focus.