EXAM III FULL REVIEW

Main organs of the urinary system

Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.

Function of the kidneys

To produce urine and regulate blood composition.

Functional unit of the kidney

The nephron.

Two main parts of a nephron

Renal corpuscle and renal tubule.

Where filtration of blood occurs

In the renal corpuscle.

Three major processes in urine formation

Filtration, reabsorption, and secretion.

Role of the glomerulus

To filter blood plasma into the capsular space.

Function of the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)

Reabsorption of water, nutrients, and ions.

What happens in the nephron loop (Loop of Henle)

Concentration of urine through water and salt exchange.

Role of the distal convoluted tubule (DCT)

Selective reabsorption and secretion.

Hormone that increases water reabsorption in the collecting duct

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH).

Juxtaglomerular complex (JGC) responsibility

Secreting renin and erythropoietin.

Glomerular filtration rate (GFR)

The amount of filtrate produced per minute (about 125 mL/min).

Factors influencing GFR

Hydrostatic pressure, colloid osmotic pressure, and capsular pressure.

Hormone system that increases blood pressure and GFR

The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system.

Types of nephrons

Cortical and juxtamedullary nephrons.

Function of the collecting system

Final urine concentration and volume adjustment.

Role of aldosterone in the nephron

Increases sodium reabsorption and potassium secretion.

Glycosuria

Presence of glucose in the urine due to exceeding renal threshold.

Effect of sympathetic stimulation on kidneys

Reduces GFR by constricting afferent arterioles.

Fluid balance

A balance between water gain and water loss in the body.

Electrolyte balance

When electrolyte gains equal electrolyte losses.

Acid-base balance

Maintaining pH within the normal range (7.35-7.45).

Location of most body water

In intracellular fluid (ICF).

Main components of extracellular fluid (ECF)

Interstitial fluid and plasma.

Movement of water between compartments

By osmosis.

Role of ADH in fluid balance

Promotes water retention by the kidneys.

Trigger for the release of ADH

Increased osmolarity of the ECF.

Hormone that increases sodium reabsorption

Aldosterone.

Function of natriuretic peptides

Promote sodium and water excretion to lower blood volume.

What happens during dehydration

Water moves from ICF to ECF to maintain osmotic balance.

What happens during overhydration

Water shifts into cells, potentially causing cellular damage.

Hyponatremia

Low sodium concentration in ECF.

Hypernatremia

High sodium concentration in ECF.

Primary cation in ECF

Sodium (Na⁺).

Primary cation in ICF

Potassium (K⁺).

Most dangerous electrolyte imbalance

Potassium imbalance.

Major buffering systems

Protein buffer system, carbonic acid-bicarbonate, and phosphate buffer system.

Cause of respiratory acidosis

CO₂ retention due to hypoventilation.

Compensation for metabolic acidosis

Increased respiratory rate and hydrogen ion excretion by kidneys.

What is the primary function of the reproductive system?

To produce and store reproductive cells and enable the creation of new individuals.

Why is the reproductive system considered non-essential to individual survival?

Because it is not required for the survival of the individual, only for species continuation.

How does the reproductive system affect other organ systems?

Through the hormones it produces, which can influence other systems.

What are the primary structures of the male reproductive system?

Testes, reproductive tract, accessory glands, and penis.

What is the role of the male reproductive tract?

To transport sperm from the testes to the outside of the body.

What do accessory glands in the male reproductive system do?

They produce fluids that nourish and transport sperm.

What is semen composed of?

Sperm and secretions from the accessory glands.

What hormones regulate male reproductive function?

Testosterone, luteinizing hormone (LH), and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).

What are the primary structures of the female reproductive system?

Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, and external genitalia.

What is oogenesis?

The process by which ova (egg cells) are produced in the ovaries.

What are the two main female reproductive cycles?

The ovarian cycle and the uterine (menstrual) cycle.

What is the function of the uterus?

To support a developing embryo and fetus during pregnancy.

What is the role of the vagina in the reproductive system?

It serves as the canal for intercourse, childbirth, and menstrual flow.

Which hormones regulate the female reproductive cycle?

Estrogen, progesterone, LH, and FSH.

What happens during the ovarian cycle?

Maturation and release of an ovum from the ovary.

What happens during the uterine cycle?

Preparation of the endometrial lining for potential implantation.

What physiological changes occur during sexual intercourse?

Vasodilation, muscular contractions, and hormone release in both males and females.

What reproductive changes occur with aging in females?

Menopause and a decline in hormone levels and fertility.

What reproductive changes occur with aging in males?

Gradual decline in testosterone and sperm production.

How does the reproductive system interact with the endocrine system?

Through hormone production and regulation of reproductive functions.

What is differentiation?

The creation of different types of cells through selective gene activation during development.

What marks the beginning of development?

Fertilization, also called conception.

What occurs during embryonic development?

The formation and early development of the embryo during the first two months after fertilization.

When does fetal development begin?

At the start of the ninth week and continues until birth.

What are the two stages of prenatal development?

Embryonic and fetal development.

When does postnatal development begin and end?

It begins at birth and continues to maturity.

What is inheritance?

The transfer of genetically determined characteristics from one generation to the next.

What does genetics study?

The mechanisms responsible for inheritance.

How many chromosomes are in a zygote?

46 chromosomes — 23 from each haploid gamete.

What is the function of the spermatozoon?

To deliver paternal chromosomes to the site of fertilization.

What essential components does the female gamete provide?

Cellular organelles, inclusions, nourishment, and genetic programming.

Where does fertilization typically occur?

In the uterine tube, within a day after ovulation.

What is capacitation?

A process sperm must undergo to become capable of fertilizing the secondary oocyte.

What triggers capacitation?

Contact with seminal gland secretions and exposure to the female reproductive tract environment.

What is the role of hyaluronidase during fertilization?

To break down bonds between follicle cells, allowing sperm to reach the oocyte.

What is acrosin?

A proteolytic enzyme that assists sperm in penetrating the oocyte.

What is the function of the acrosome?

To release enzymes like hyaluronidase and acrosin for oocyte penetration.

What is oocyte activation?

The process triggered by sperm-oocyte membrane fusion that completes meiosis II.

What is polyspermy?

Fertilization by more than one sperm cell.

How is polyspermy prevented?

Through the cortical reaction, which releases enzymes to inactivate sperm receptors and harden the zona pellucida.

Renal pyramid

Which of the following kidney structures produces urine?

Cortex

Outermost is cortex.

Medulla

Innermost is medulla.

Glomerulus

Which of the following filters out blood?

Creatinine clearance and glomerular filtration rate (GFR)

Clinical Application to measure kidney function.

PCT Proximal Convoluted Tubule

The first segment of the renal tubule is the reabsorbs water.

DCT Distal Convoluted Tubule

Does absorption of nutrients.

Nephrologist

Medical specialist that focuses on kidneys.

Urine

Is mostly water.

Polyurea

In medicine, what is excessive urination called?

Dysurea

Difficult urination is.

Gout

The medical condition in which uric acid is excessive.

Deposits in joints

Where is gout found?

Excess sodium in diet

Why does gout happen?

Osmolarity

Is the measure of solute particles in a solution of water.

Milliosmoles (mmOSm)

Units for Osmolarity?

80mg/dL

A normal blood glucose level during fasting during a urinalysis is how much?

Hyperglycemia

High blood sugar is known as?

Glycosuria

The presence of increased glucose in the urine which produces a sweet smell during urination is called?

Alkalosis

Abnormally high blood pH is called?