Anthropology Exam 2 - Koziol UARK

Potlatch

Potlatch

can be tied into the status of individuals or descent groups (i.e. it is a prestige economy)

in the potlatch, ceremonies associated with funerals, names, status, and privileges can be transferred to the person who is most generous

Social Distance

the degree to which cultural norms specify that individuals or groups should be helpful to, intimate with, or emotionally attached to one another

the closer the relationship is perceived to be, the more that will be shared with little to no expectation of return

Redistribution

the collection and distribution of goods by centralized authority

tribute & taxes

Tribute

the rendering of goods including foods, to an authority, such as a chief to be reallocated

Taxes

monies are collected and used (redistributed) for the whole community or country

Reciprocity

back-and-forth exchange of products, gifts, and objects; symbolizes obligations and individual relationships as well as satisfies material needs and wants

balanced, generalized, negative

Generalized reciprocity

these exchanges do not track the specific values of times traded

there is an assumption that these exchanges will somewhat even out over time, but not within any defined period nor with any urgency

signifies close social ties

Negative reciprocity

where people attempt to get the better deal or create debts for others

giving gifts that can't be returned

Balanced reciprocity

exchanges that are roughly equal in value that are exchanged at specific intervals or for specialized purposes

gift exchange is a familiar form

U.S. participates in this

Hunters and Gatherers (Foragers)

most to all of their subsistence (how they transform environmental resources into food) is based on gathering, hunting, and fishing of wild materials

adaptations are focused on mobility - foragers tend to be nomadic (highly mobile) and have low population density

this was the primary mode of subsistence for the majority of human existence

live in structures that range from temporary to permanent

Misconceptions about Foragers

they have a difficult time finding food

they need to compete with dangerous conditions in nature (animals)

they consume mostly meat

they work hard, long hours

they are prone to illness and injury

Pastoralists

adaptions based on tending, breeding, and harvesting the products of livestock

herd animals include: cattle, camels, reindeer, yaks, sheep, goats, etc.

Horticulturalists

mode of cultivation focused on small gardens or fields to support basic family needs

often this requires access to large tracts of land to allow soils to replenish (fallow) - this is particularly true of slash-and-burn (swidden) horticulture practices which may have extensive lag time between nutrient use and replenishment

Agriculturalists

mode of cultivation in which animals or machinery are used to produce crops

soils are used more intensively
involves irrigation and fertilization techniques to replenish nutrients and maintain stable water sources

ranges from "traditional" farms to industrial forms of food production

Nomadic/nomadism

Highly mobile

Sedentary/sedentism

Stationary

Coercion

practice of persuading someone to do something by using threats or force

Persuasion

persuading someone to voluntarily change their belief or action

Centralized political system

system where some individuals or institutions hold power and control over resources

commonly found in chiefdom and states

Non-centralized political system

dispersed power and resources

commonly found in bands and tribes

Ranked society - centralized political system

have distinctions in access or acquisition of status and wealth based on kinship exist, but access to basic resources do not have important restrictions

there are few high-ranked positions available

kin groups and their members can be ranked, with greater ranks obtaining greater rewards

Caste society - centralized political systems

social stratification where membership is hereditary, strata are endogamous, and contact/relationships between strata are prohibited or otherwise limited - social mobility between castes is not allowed; greatly marked distinctions

Class system - centralized political systems

system of stratification that can be altered (allows mobility) by marriage or other increases in access to power, wealth, and prestige; greatly marked distinctions

Egalitarian system - centralized political systems

acephalous "head-less" societies encourage these principles

there are little to no distinctions in access or acquisition of status

leadership roles are temporary

gender, age, skills may influence access to roles and positions

you're not born into vastly different power/prestige/wealth positions, and there are not external governing bodies

Achieved status

using personality, skills, and with the approval of many other members of the society to gain status

Ascribed status

status that one is born into and cannot easily (or ever) change

Herd animals

cattle, camels, llamas, alpaca, yaks, reindeer, sheep, goats, horses

Slash-and-burn (swidden horticulture)

farming method in tropical regions in which the farmer slashes and burns small areas of forest to release plant nutrients into the soil

When did agriculture begin?

10,000 years ago

Benefits resulted by foraging ---> agricultural

can support larger and more complex socio-political arrangements, surpluses of resources

Consequences resulted by foraging ---> agriculture

increased disease, increased waste, increased labor, reduced mobility

Traditional agriculturalist

a form of food production in which fields are in permanent cultivation using plows, animals, and techniques of soil and water control

Industrial agriculturalist

dependent on investments in machinery, technology communications and information - patterned after manufacturing

Intensive production system

the land use strategy is dependent on bringing nutrients into a land parcel without moving to allow natural replenishment

agricultural

Extensive production system

the land use strategy requires movement to allow resources to replenish

foraging/hunter-gatherer
horticulture
pastoralism

Who did Sahlins call the "original affluent society" and why?

hunter-gatherer societies; because all people's material wants were easily satisfied

Lewis Henry Morgan

evolutionary cultural organization model - all cultures would go from savagery to barbarism to civilized and no one would go backwards

Rites of Passage

public ceremony that marks, recognizes, celebrates, or is believed to actually cause a change in a person/his status, often related to increasing age (graduation, driver's license, first communion, etc)

3 Phases of Rites of Passage

1. separation
2. transition
3. re-incorporation

Anthropologist as a Problem Solver: Teresa Mares

-farming is a difficult year round job with unreliable financials, due to fluctuation of milk prices
-now a highly mechanized industry
research ethnographically what the lives of the farmers are like>> stressful and isolating & unable to go supermarket shopping
-worked to get program through university that provided dairy farmers with seeds, tools, and and technical guidance so they could produce their own fruit and vegetables
-this research produces insights into how farmers cope with food insecurity and struggle to maintain food practices that are meaningful to them

Classic Contributions: E.E. Evans-Pritchard on Segmentary Lineages

-pritchard does fieldwork among the nuer
-discovers they have no central government, central chiefs, or powerful individuals
-nuer has feuds often over cattle, which pritchard called "ordered anarchy"
-political unity of nuer was flexible and non-centralized, allowing them to create larger groups according to need and dismantle them quickly
-segmentary lineages

General characteristics of populations by socio-political type: Bands

Usually 25-several hundred members, low population density (1 person/sq.mile)
Hunter-gatherers
Informal/temporary political structure
Small families
Marriages are more economic partnership and alliances
Egalitarian and highly mobile (nomadic)
Temporary settlements.

General characteristics of populations by socio-political type: Tribes

1,000-20,000 members
Density: 10 people/square mile
Part-time slash and burn horticulture and also pastoralism
Few formalized leadership roles with limited authority (based on personal achievements)
Self-sufficient family groups
usually egalitarian
Limited mobility, semi-nomadic
Seasonal settlements

General characteristics of populations by socio-political type: Chiefdom

Few thousand-30,000 members
Density: 15 people/square mile
Horticulture and agriculture
Well-Established leadership roles that are hereditary (may also require achievements)
Independent family groups
Ranked status
Limited mobility
Mostly permanent settlements

General characteristics of populations by socio-political type: States

Tens of thousands-millions of people
Density: 300 people/ square mile
Plow or irrigation agriculture
Highly developed state organization with clear hierarchy
Nuclear family
Ranked status and often stratified
Limited mobility/sedentary
Mostly permanent settlements; urbanization

Sabrina Sameshima & Matt J. Stannard's "We Belong to the Land: Samburu People's Legal Battle to
Save Lands in Kenya"

The Samburu culture owns land in Kenya and have been there a very long time. Attacks threatened their well being, and the police blamed it on them. Police stormed the community and confiscated belongings and harassed people. Sensing that the sellers wanted to silence them, the community members balked at the sudden change and refused to accept a deal for relocation. Problems started that day - police informed that members were "on the president's land" and had to vacate immediately. Court in English and a bit of Swahilli, few Samburu know those languages. Court provided an unclear and ineffective translator

Abigail Tucker's "The Great New England Vampire Panic"

During the 19th century, a town called Exeter in New England become obsessed with vampires. They had the mindset that exhuming your dead relatives to see if they had fresh blood or "screamed" if they were stabbed meant they were vampires and would haunt the family. The Brown family was a big deal, they all got sick one at a time and all died with the town thinking they were vampires.

Julie McCarthy's "Fasting to the Death: Is it a Religious Rite Or Suicide?"

Members of the ancient and tiny faith of Jainism in India, there's a tradition called santhara or sallekhana (literally thinning out). Some of the very devout in the religion do not eat until they die, proving their love for the religion. The Supreme Court of India wants to outlaw the practice, saying it's suicide. It is controversial in the religion, some members believe it is suicide, while others do not.