SOCIO 0010

Relational thinking

Explaining behavior by looking at relationships between people and social structures, not just individual choices. Example: Poverty explained by job markets and education systems rather than laziness.

Sociological imagination

The ability to connect personal experiences to larger social forces. Example: Student debt reflects rising tuition and economic inequality.

Relation between biography and history

The idea that a person's life is shaped by historical events and social conditions. Example: Graduating during a recession affects job opportunities.

Private troubles

Personal problems that appear individual but may have social causes. Example: One person struggling to find a job.

Public issues

Problems affecting many people caused by social structures. Example: High unemployment during an economic crisis.

Mills' vision of sociology

Sociology should help people understand how personal problems connect to social systems. Example: Seeing housing insecurity as linked to housing policy.

Truth, reason, and human freedom

Sociology should use evidence and rational thinking to help people understand society and think more freely. Example: Studying inequality to challenge unfair systems.

Weber's vision of sociology

Sociology should use scientific methods to understand social behavior and meanings. Example: Studying why people follow religious rules.

Science as knowledge, method, and clarity

Science provides facts, a way of analyzing problems, and helps people understand consequences of choices. Example: Research helping policymakers understand poverty.

Role of politics in science

Politics can influence what research is funded and how findings are used. Example: Government funding studies on climate change.

Becker's vision of sociology

Sociology should examine power and whose perspectives are believed. Example: Studying the viewpoints of marginalized groups.

Hierarchy of credibility

Society tends to believe powerful people more than others. Example: A police officer's story may be believed over a suspect's.

Problem of taking sides

Sociologists studying inequality must consider whether they can remain neutral. Example: Studying poverty may involve moral judgments.

Solution to taking sides

Researchers should recognize power differences and examine whose voices are ignored. Example: Including perspectives of disadvantaged groups.

Looking glass self

The idea that people form their identity based on how they think others see them. Example: A student gains confidence if classmates treat them as smart.

Imagined perception of others

How we think others see us. Example: Thinking classmates see you as quiet.

Imagined judgement of that perception

What we think others think about us. Example: Believing others think you are shy.

Personal response to imagined judgement

Emotional reaction to imagined judgment. Example: Feeling embarrassed or proud.

Contrast with psychological or economic self

Sociology views identity as shaped by social interaction rather than only personality or rational choices. Example: Confidence growing from social feedback.

Beauty as social structure

Beauty standards are shaped by society and institutions. Example: Media promoting certain body types.

Intersections with power

Beauty standards often reflect social hierarchies. Example: Certain appearances being valued in jobs.

Links between race and beauty

Beauty standards often favor features linked to dominant racial groups. Example: Lighter skin being valued in media.

White gaze

Beauty and behavior judged through white cultural standards. Example: Media portraying whiteness as the norm.

Male gaze

Women viewed mainly through a heterosexual male perspective. Example: Movies focusing on women's appearance.

Pretty privilege

Attractive people often receive advantages. Example: Being treated more positively in job interviews.

Power

The ability to influence decisions or control resources. Example: A manager deciding who gets promoted.

Social construction

The idea that many social categories are created through social interaction. Example: Race having social meaning even though it is not biological.

Thomas Theorem

If people believe something is real, it becomes real in its consequences. Example: Panic about a bank failure causing a bank run.

Biological sex difference

Physical biological differences between males and females. Example: Differences in reproductive anatomy.

Gender essentialism

The belief that men and women naturally behave in certain ways. Example: Saying women are naturally nurturing.

Genetic essentialism

The belief that genes determine behaviors or abilities. Example: Claiming intelligence is completely genetic.

Gender role

Social expectations for how genders should behave. Example: Expecting men to be assertive.

Doing gender

Gender created through everyday behavior and interaction. Example: Choosing clothing that signals masculinity or femininity.

Ethnomethodology

The study of how people create social order in everyday interactions. Example: Observing how people follow unwritten rules in conversations.

Social accountability

The expectation that people explain their actions so others see them as reasonable. Example: Explaining why you arrived late.

Biological human nature

The idea that some behaviors may come from biology. Example: Emotional responses like fear.

Universal expressions of emotion

The idea that some emotions are expressed similarly across cultures. Example: Smiling when happy.

The Blank Slate

The belief that human behavior is mostly shaped by environment rather than biology. Example: Culture influencing personality.

Underdeveloped instinctual organization

Humans rely more on learning and culture than instinct. Example: Learning social rules instead of acting purely on instinct.

Institutionalization

The process where behaviors become established social rules. Example: Formal schooling becoming standard.

Habituation

Repeating actions until they become routine. Example: Automatically raising your hand in class.

Typification of actors and actions

Categorizing people into social roles. Example: Seeing someone as a "teacher" or "student."

Sedimentation

The buildup of shared meanings over time that strengthens institutions. Example: Long-standing traditions in universities.

Shared history shaping institutionalization

Past experiences shaping institutions. Example: Historical segregation affecting modern schools.

Institutions

Enduring systems that organize social life. Example: Education or government.

Formal institutions

Structured institutions with official rules. Example: Universities or courts.

Informal institutions

Social norms without formal rules. Example: Dating customs.

Big institutions

Large systems shaping society. Example: Race or gender.

Small institutions

Everyday structured roles in specific contexts. Example: Being a student in class.

Institutions inside organizations

Social norms operating within organizations. Example: Office culture in a company.

Institutions beyond organizations

Larger social systems shaping organizations. Example: Education shaping schools.

Organizations

Structured groups with goals and rules. Example: A university or business.

Space as social construction

The idea that spaces gain meaning through social practices. Example: A neighborhood associated with a certain culture.

White space

Places dominated by white people socially and culturally. Example: Certain elite neighborhoods.

Black space

Places centered around Black culture and community. Example: Black barbershops.

Other social spaces

Spaces where specific groups form community and identity. Example: Fraternities or cultural clubs.

Inequality in higher education

Differences in resources and opportunities among students. Example: Wealthy students having more academic support.

Doubly disadvantaged

Students lacking both financial resources and cultural knowledge. Example: First-generation college students from low-income backgrounds.

Privileged poor

Low-income students who attended elite schools and gained cultural capital. Example: Scholarship students from prep schools.

Cultural capital

Knowledge and behaviors valued by institutions. Example: Knowing how to speak confidently with professors.

Hidden curriculum

Unwritten rules needed to succeed in institutions. Example: Networking with professors.

Class status

Social position based on income, education, and occupation. Example: Differences between working-class and wealthy families.

Opportunity hoarding

Groups protecting resources for themselves. Example: Legacy admissions at elite colleges.

Social closure

Restricting access to opportunities to maintain advantage. Example: Professional licenses limiting entry to careers.

Structural disadvantage

Systemic patterns limiting opportunities for certain groups. Example: Underfunded schools in poor areas.

Structural advantage

Systemic patterns benefiting certain groups. Example: Wealthy schools with more resources.

Privilege as accumulation of chances

Advantages build up over time. Example: Wealthy students having better tutoring and networks.

Matthew Effect

Those who start with advantages gain even more advantages. Example: Elite universities gaining more funding and prestige.

Accumulated privilege

The compounding of advantages over time. Example: Wealth leading to better education and career opportunities.

Social Mobility Index

A ranking measuring how well colleges help students move up economically. Example: Schools supporting low-income students graduating into good jobs.

Contrast with U.S. News rankings

Traditional rankings focus on prestige rather than economic mobility. Example: Ivy League schools ranked highly despite limited upward mobility for some students.

Inequality from top-down and bottom-up

Inequality is shaped by institutions (top-down) and everyday interactions (bottom-up). Example: Hiring systems plus social biases affecting jobs.

Ethnography

A research method involving observing and interacting with people in their real environments. Example: Living in a community to study daily life.

Inconvenient sample

A sample chosen because it is easy to access. Example: Surveying only college students.

Front stage

Public behavior where people perform expected roles. Example: A waiter being polite to customers.

Backstage

Private behavior when people relax their roles. Example: A waiter complaining about customers in the kitchen.

Racialization

The process of assigning racial meanings to groups. Example: Immigrant groups becoming labeled as a racial category.

Degradation as a racialized process

The lowering of status of groups through stereotypes or discrimination. Example: Media portraying certain racial groups negatively.