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Africans, free and enslaved, who had lived in Spain or Portugal, often speaking Spanish or Portuguese and familiar with European culture.
Atlantic Creoles
Early generations of Africans in the Americas who had experience with European languages and culture, often working as traders, sailors, or intermediaries.
social mobility
The ability of individuals or groups to move within a social hierarchy, often through changes in wealth, education, occupation, or other factors.
La Florida
Spanish territory in North America, encompassing parts of present-day Florida and surrounding areas, where early African slaves and free people of color played significant roles in colonial society.
Juan Garrido
A free African conquistador who traveled to the Americas with the Spanish, participating in expeditions including the conquest of Mexico, and is known for being the first to plant wheat in the New World.
Estevanico
An enslaved African who was one of the first Africans in North America, known for his exploration of the American Southwest and his role as a guide during Spanish expeditions.
manumission
The act of a slaveowner freeing their enslaved persons.
mulatto
A person of mixed European and African ancestry.
encomiendo
A Spanish labor system where colonists were granted the right to the labor of indigenous people in exchange for their protection and Christianization.
New Spain
The colonial territory established by Spain in the Americas, primarily in present-day Mexico, parts of the United States, and Central America.
Hernán Cortés
The Spanish conquistador who led the expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire in the early 16th century.
bozales
African-born enslaved persons who were newly arrived in the Americas and not yet accustomed to the languages or customs of European colonial societies.
racial slavery
A system of slavery based on the belief that one race is superior to another, and in which individuals are enslaved because of their racial identity, often justifying the enslavement of people of African descent.
triangular trade
The transatlantic trading system that involved the exchange of goods and enslaved people between Europe, Africa, and the Americas, forming a triangular route across the Atlantic Ocean.
ancient slavery
A system of forced labor present in ancient civilizations such as Greece, Rome, and Egypt, where enslaved individuals were typically prisoners of war or debtors, and race was not the determining factor for enslavement. Enslaved people often had certain rights.
plantation system
A large-scale agricultural operation in the Americas, particularly in the southern U.S., Caribbean, and Brazil, where enslaved labor was used to produce cash crops like sugar, tobacco, and cotton.
cash crops
Agricultural products grown primarily for sale and profit, rather than for personal use, including crops like tobacco, cotton, sugar, and rice in the context of the plantation economy.
monocrop agriculture
An agricultural system in which a single crop is grown over a large area for an extended period, often associated with plantations that focused on one cash crop, such as sugar or cotton.
indentured servants
Individuals who agreed to work for a certain number of years (often 4-7) in exchange for passage to the Americas, food, and shelter. Unlike enslaved people, they were eventually freed after their contracts expired.
New Laws of 1542
A set of laws issued by the Spanish Crown aimed at protecting the indigenous peoples in the Americas by prohibiting their enslavement and limiting the encomienda system.
Middle Passage
The horrific transatlantic journey endured by enslaved Africans, who were transported under brutal conditions from West Africa to the Americas as part of the Atlantic slave trade.
Elmina Castle
A fortress on the coast of present-day Ghana, originally built by the Portuguese in 1482, which became a central trading post for enslaved Africans before their transport to the Americas.
chattel slavery
A form of slavery in which individuals are treated as personal property (chattel) of the slave owner and can be bought, sold, and inherited, with no legal rights or autonomy. This system was prominent in the Americas, especially in the transatlantic slave trade.
transatlantic slave trade
The forced transport of Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas, where they were enslaved and exploited for labor. It was a major component of the triangular trade system from the 16th to the 19th centuries.
deracination
Refers to the process of uprooting individuals or groups from their native culture, identity, or environment, often causing a loss of cultural heritage and belonging. In African American history, deracination can reflect forced displacements and the erasure of cultural identity, particularly through practices like slavery and colonization.
United States v. The Amistad
A landmark 1841 Supreme Court case involving the rebellion of African captives aboard the Spanish schooner La Amistad. The Court ruled that the captives, who had been illegally kidnapped from Africa and sold into slavery, were not legally slaves and had the right to fight for their freedom. This case became significant in the fight against slavery and highlighted issues of human rights and international law.
partus sequitur ventrem
A principle stating that a child's status as free or enslaved followed that of the mother, codified in colonial slave law.
skilled labor
Enslaved individuals who possessed specialized skills, such as blacksmithing, carpentry, or weaving, often given increased value and occasionally hired out for additional income for slaveholders.
“gang system”
A labor system where enslaved people worked in groups (or gangs) under the close supervision of an overseer, typically from sunrise to sunset, common on large plantations.
“task system”
A labor system in which enslaved people were assigned specific tasks to complete each day; once finished, they had limited time for themselves, often used in rice plantations.
U.S. Constitution
The foundational document of the United States that did not initially abolish slavery and contained clauses that indirectly protected the institution, such as the Three-Fifths Compromise.
Slave Codes
Laws that restricted the rights and movements of enslaved people, including prohibiting them from reading, writing, or congregating without permission, aimed at maintaining control over enslaved populations.
anti-Black laws in Free States
Laws in Northern states that restricted the rights and freedoms of free Black people, such as limits on voting, employment opportunities, and property ownership.
Dred Scott Case
The 1857 Supreme Court decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which ruled that African Americans were not U.S. citizens and had no rights to sue in federal court, reinforcing slavery.
slave auctions
Public sales where enslaved individuals were bought and sold to the highest bidder, often involving invasive physical inspections, family separations, and dehumanizing treatment.
family separation
A common consequence of slavery where enslaved family members were forcibly separated through sales or assignments, leading to significant emotional trauma and loss of family bonds.
the “benign institution”
A misnomer used by pro-slavery advocates to depict slavery as a humane or paternalistic system, falsely arguing it provided care and stability for enslaved people.
the cotton boom
The rapid expansion of cotton production in the Southern U.S. in the 19th century, driven by high demand for cotton in textile industries, which increased reliance on enslaved labor.
cotton gin
A machine invented by Eli Whitney in 1793 that efficiently removed seeds from cotton fibers, greatly boosting cotton production and entrenching slavery in the South.
domestic slave trade
The forced relocation of enslaved people within the United States, particularly from the Upper South to the Deep South, to meet labor demands in expanding cotton plantations.
Trail of Tears
The forced removal of Native American tribes from the Southeastern U.S., leading to mass death and suffering; increased land availability in these areas intensified the demand for enslaved labor.
the “Second Middle Passage”
The internal slave trade within the United States, where millions of enslaved people were forcibly moved from the Upper South to the Deep South during the 19th century, reflecting the growth of the cotton economy.
Black Seminoles
African-descended people who allied with the Seminole tribes in Florida; some were formerly enslaved, and they found refuge with the Seminoles, often participating in resistance against U.S. forces and slaveholders.
Indigenous slave codes and slave patrols
Regulations and practices established by some Indigenous nations that adopted enslaving practices, influenced by European colonists, including codes similar to those governing African-descended enslaved people and patrols to monitor enslaved individuals.
spirituals
Religious songs created by enslaved African Americans, expressing faith, resilience, and longing for freedom; often encoded with messages of resistance and hope, spirituals laid the foundation for future African American musical genres.
gospel
Rooted in Christian worship, gospel music evolved from spirituals and is characterized by its expressive, uplifting style, celebrating faith and perseverance.
blues
Originating in the Deep South, the blues developed from African American work songs and spirituals, expressing themes of hardship, love, and resilience, influencing later genres like jazz and rock.
lingua franca
A common language used for communication between groups who do not share a native language, often emerging in diverse societies to facilitate trade, diplomacy, and social interaction; in the context of African American history, elements of English and African languages blended in communities, creating a unique vernacular for communication among enslaved people from different linguistic backgrounds.
Gullah Geechee
A distinct African American community and culture that developed among descendants of enslaved Africans on the Sea Islands and coastal regions of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. The Gullah Geechee people preserved unique linguistic, cultural, and culinary traditions with strong African influences, and their Creole language—known as Gullah—is a blend of English and various West African languages.
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