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Africans, free and enslaved, who had lived in Spain or Portugal, often speaking Spanish or Portuguese and familiar with European culture.
Atlantic Creoles
Early generations of Africans in the Americas who had experience with European languages and culture, often working as traders, sailors, or intermediaries.
social mobility
The ability of individuals or groups to move within a social hierarchy, often through changes in wealth, education, occupation, or other factors.
La Florida
Spanish territory in North America, encompassing parts of present-day Florida and surrounding areas, where early African slaves and free people of color played significant roles in colonial society.
Juan Garrido
A free African conquistador who traveled to the Americas with the Spanish, participating in expeditions including the conquest of Mexico, and is known for being the first to plant wheat in the New World.
Estevanico
An enslaved African who was one of the first Africans in North America, known for his exploration of the American Southwest and his role as a guide during Spanish expeditions.
manumission
The act of a slaveowner freeing their enslaved persons.
mulatto
A person of mixed European and African ancestry.
encomiendo
A Spanish labor system where colonists were granted the right to the labor of indigenous people in exchange for their protection and Christianization.
New Spain
The colonial territory established by Spain in the Americas, primarily in present-day Mexico, parts of the United States, and Central America.
Hernán Cortés
The Spanish conquistador who led the expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire in the early 16th century.
bozales
African-born enslaved persons who were newly arrived in the Americas and not yet accustomed to the languages or customs of European colonial societies.
racial slavery
A system of slavery based on the belief that one race is superior to another, and in which individuals are enslaved because of their racial identity, often justifying the enslavement of people of African descent.
triangular trade
The transatlantic trading system that involved the exchange of goods and enslaved people between Europe, Africa, and the Americas, forming a triangular route across the Atlantic Ocean.
ancient slavery
A system of forced labor present in ancient civilizations such as Greece, Rome, and Egypt, where enslaved individuals were typically prisoners of war or debtors, and race was not the determining factor for enslavement. Enslaved people often had certain rights.
plantation system
A large-scale agricultural operation in the Americas, particularly in the southern U.S., Caribbean, and Brazil, where enslaved labor was used to produce cash crops like sugar, tobacco, and cotton.
cash crops
Agricultural products grown primarily for sale and profit, rather than for personal use, including crops like tobacco, cotton, sugar, and rice in the context of the plantation economy.
monocrop agriculture
An agricultural system in which a single crop is grown over a large area for an extended period, often associated with plantations that focused on one cash crop, such as sugar or cotton.
indentured servants
Individuals who agreed to work for a certain number of years (often 4-7) in exchange for passage to the Americas, food, and shelter. Unlike enslaved people, they were eventually freed after their contracts expired.
New Laws of 1542
A set of laws issued by the Spanish Crown aimed at protecting the indigenous peoples in the Americas by prohibiting their enslavement and limiting the encomienda system.
Middle Passage
The horrific transatlantic journey endured by enslaved Africans, who were transported under brutal conditions from West Africa to the Americas as part of the Atlantic slave trade.
Elmina Castle
A fortress on the coast of present-day Ghana, originally built by the Portuguese in 1482, which became a central trading post for enslaved Africans before their transport to the Americas.
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