Chapter 6: What is Learning

Learning

a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that results from cognitive experience.

Non-Associative Learning

learning that involves procedures when only a single event or stimulus is presented without any reward or punishment.

Habituation

the process of decreasing the response to a repeated or prolonged stimulus over time.

Sensitization

a form of non-associative learning that involves an increase in the response to a repeated or prolonged stimulus.

Imprinting

a form of non-associative learning that occurs within hours or days of birth or hatching and results in an enduring behavior.

Associative Learning

learning that involves making connections between two stimuli or events.

Classical Conditioning

learning the association between two stimuli, helping organisms anticipate events.

Operant Conditioning

learning the association between a behavior and a consequence.

Observational Learning

learning by observing the behavior of others.

Acquisition

the learning phase where the conditioned stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus to acquire a conditioned response.

Contiguity

the close temporal proximity between the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus.

Contingency

the reliable indicator that the conditioned stimulus serves in predicting the unconditioned stimulus.

Generalization

when a new stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus elicits a response similar to the conditioned response.

Discrimination

the process of learning to respond to specific stimuli and not to others.

Extinction

the weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented.

Spontaneous Recovery

the recurrence of an extinguished conditioned response after a time delay without further conditioning.

Renewal

the recovery of the conditioned response when the organism is placed in a novel context.

Fear Acquisition

the process of acquiring fears through classical conditioning.

Counterconditioning

a classical conditioning procedure that transforms an undesired response to a stimulus into a desired response.

Aversive Conditioning

a form of treatment involving repeated pairings of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus to establish new connections or break old ones.

Placebo Effect

observable changes, like reduced pain, not explained by a real treatment's biological effects.

Immunization

a reduction in antibody production that weakens the body's ability to fight disease.

Distaste Learning

the process of learning to have a negative response to a taste.

Taste aversion learning

A learned association between a specific taste and nausea.

CS (Conditioned Stimulus)

The taste in taste aversion learning.

UR (Unconditioned Response)

Nausea or vomiting in taste aversion learning.

CR (Conditioned Response)

The learned aversion in taste aversion learning.

Radiation and chemotherapy

Treatments for cancer that can induce nausea and lead to aversions to foods consumed before treatment.

Classical conditioning

The use of learned associations between stimuli to modify behavior.

Positive experiences

Unconditioned stimuli that are paired with products in advertising to create positive associations.

Operant conditioning

A form of learning where behavior is influenced by its consequences.

Thorndike's law of effect

The consequences of a behavior determine the likelihood of that behavior being repeated.

Skinner's approach to operant conditioning

The study of organisms under controlled conditions to explore the connection between behavior and consequences.

Shaping

A training method that rewards successive approximations of a desired behavior.

Principles of reinforcement

Behaviors resulting in desirable outcomes are more likely to be repeated, while those leading to undesirable outcomes are less likely to recur.

Positive reinforcement

Increasing behavior frequency by following it with a desirable stimulus.

Negative reinforcement

Raising behavior frequency by removing something undesirable.

Avoidance learning

Learning to make a response to escape or avoid a negative stimulus.

Learned helplessness

Believing that one has no control over negative outcomes, leading to a deficit in avoidance learning.

Primary reinforcer

Innately satisfying reinforcers, such as food, water, warmth, and sexual satisfaction.

Secondary reinforcer

Reinforcers that gain their positive value through experience and conditioning.

Generalization

The performance of a reinforced behavior in a different situation.

Discrimination

Responding differently to stimuli that indicate whether a behavior will or will not be reinforced.

Extinction

The decrease in frequency of a behavior when it is no longer reinforced.

Classical conditioning

A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, resulting in a learned response.

Operant conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is changed through consequences.

Thorndike's law of effect

Behaviors that are followed by pleasant outcomes are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by unpleasant outcomes are less likely to be repeated.

Shaping

The process of rewarding successive approximations of a desired behavior.

Positive reinforcement

Increasing behavior by adding a rewarding stimulus.

Negative reinforcement

Increasing behavior by removing an aversive stimulus.

Primary reinforcers

Inherently satisfying stimuli.

Secondary reinforcers

Learned stimuli that become rewarding.

Continuous reinforcement

Reinforcing behavior every time it occurs.

Partial reinforcement

Reinforcing behavior intermittently, based on fixed or variable schedules.

Punishment

Reducing behavior through negative or positive consequences.

Generalization

The tendency to respond to similar stimuli as the conditioned stimulus.

Discrimination

The ability to differentiate between similar stimuli and respond only to the specific conditioned stimulus.

Extinction

The gradual disappearance of a learned response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Observational learning

Learning by observing and imitating others' behaviors.

Attention

Paying heed to what someone is saying or doing during observational learning.

Retention

Encoding and keeping information in memory for later retrieval during observational learning.

Motor reproduction

Imitating the actions of the person being observed during observational learning.

Reinforcement

Seeing the consequences for another person of doing an activity during observational learning.

Cognitive factors

Mental processes and mechanisms that influence learning, such as expectancies and goal-directed behavior.

Latent learning

Unrefined learning not immediately reflected in behavior.

Insight learning

Problem-solving involving sudden understanding of a problem's solution.

Biological factors in learning

Factors related to the physical and genetic aspects of an organism that influence learning.

Cultural factors in learning

Factors related to the social and cultural environment that influence learning.

Psychological factors in learning

Factors related to the mental and emotional aspects of an individual that influence learning.

Health and wellness

The state of overall physical, mental, and emotional well-being.

Stress response

The physiological and psychological reactions to stressors in the environment.

Predictability

The ability to anticipate and predict upcoming events or situations.

Perceived control

The belief that one has control over their environment and outcomes.

Perceptions of improvement

The belief that one's situation is improving or can be improved.

Outlets for frustration

Opportunities to release or cope with frustration and stress.