AP Psych U2P2 (2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8)

Encoding

process of transforming information into a form that can be stored and retrieved by the brain

Mnemonic Devices

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

ex: acronyms, rhymes, story mnemonics

Method of Loci

Imagine placing items you need to remember in specific locations in a familiar place. To recall the items, mentally walk through the place to visualize or “see” the items in their locations.

Chunking-Grouping

breaking down information into smaller, manageable chunks (usually to be stored more efficiently in short-term memory)

Hierarchies-Grouping

Concepts/information are organized in levels of importance or inclusivity. This helps organize information and understanding relationships between different concepts and how they fit into a larger framework.

Spacing Effect

the tendency for information to be retained better when rehearsal is distributed over time

Memory Consolidation

the process by which short-term memories are transformed into long-term memories during sleep or rest periods (physical process)

Massed Practice

cramming information into a single, long study session

Distributed Practice

spacing out study sessions over a longer period of time

Serial Position Effect

the tendency to remember information presented at the beginning and end of a list better than the information in the middle

serial = cereal: top is crunchy (yum), bottom is soggy (gross), middle is forgettable

Primacy Effect

The tendency to remember information presented at the beginning of a list

think primary! primary school teacher primary colors early in your life and you remember them well

Recency Effect

The tendency to remember information presented at the end of a list (most recently)

Storage

the process of retaining coded information over time

Sensory Memory

the initial stage of a memory that briefly stores sensory information

Short-Term Memory

memory that holds a limited amount of information for a short period of time

Working-Memory

short term memory that actively processes information, holds 7 ± 2 items at once, and acts as a mental work space

Long-Term Memory

memory that stores information for an extended period

Maintenance Rehearsal

repeating information over-and-over to keep information in short-term memory

think of maintaining a garden, you must keep cutting the bushes for it to hold its shape

Elaborative Rehearsal

the process of connecting new information to existing knowledge

when you elaborate on something, you add additional knowledge to the topic at hand

Memory Retention

the ability to store and recall previously learned information or experiences; it involves holding on to information over time

Autobiographical Memory

memory for personal experiences; basically the same as episodic memory

what do you need to know when you’re writing an autobiography?

Retrograde Amnesia

The inability to remember events that occurred before the onset of amnesia

(old stuff fucked up after you’re fucked up)

Anterograde Amnesia

The inability to form new memories after the onset of amnesia

ante is latin for “before”

(you fucked up so your future is fucked up)

Physical Impairment

Damage to the brain or nervous system can impair memory

Developmental Limitations

children and older adults may have difficulty forming and retrieving memories

Alzheimer’s Disease

progressive brain disorder that causes memory loss and cognitive decline

ex: many people with this problem often struggle to remember names, dates, and recent events

Infantile Amnesia

Inability to remember events from early childhood

(young and dumb)

Retrieval

The process of accessing and bringing into consciousness the information stored in memory when its needed

Recall

ability to retrieve information from memory without any cues

Recognition

ability to identify previously learned information when it is presented

Retrieval Cues

stimuli that help you retrieve a certain memory or piece of information from your long-term memory

Context-Dependent Memory

remembering information better when in the same context or environment where it was learned

Mood-Congruent Memory

the tendency to recall information that is consistent with one’s current mood

State-Dependent Memory

remembering information better when in the same physiological or psychological state as when the information learned

ex: drinking coffee while studying and then drinking coffee before taking a test

Testing Effect

enhanced memory retention through repeated testing or practiced retrieval

Metacognition

awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes

ex: recognizing when you don’t understand a concept, using effective study strategies

Forgetting Curve

This explains how quickly memory fades over time without reinforcement / OR / A graph depicting the decline of memory retention over time

Ex: forgetting information learned for a test immediately after taking it

Encoding Failure

It is the inability to effectively store or retrieve information in long-term memory due to a failure in the initial encoding process. It occurs when information is not properly transferee from short to long term memory.

Proactive Interference

tendency if previously learned information to interfere with the learning of new information (old stuff fucks up new stuff learning edition)

example: calling your current gf by your ex’s name (pro move)

Retroactive Interference

tendency of newly learned information to interfere with the retrieval of previously learned information

example: forgetting your old street address after moving cities

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

temporary inability to retrieve specific information from memory, often accompanied by a feeling of knowing it

Repression (psychodynamic)

unconscious process that involves pushing anxiety-provoking thoughts and memories out of conscious awareness

ex: forgetting a traumatic childhood memory

Misinformation Effect

tendency for false or misleading information presented after an event to alter one’s memory of the event

ex: a witness’s memory of a crime being influenced by leasing questions

Source Amnesia

inability to remember the source of a memory while retaining the memory itself

ex: confusing a dream for a real event

Constructive Memory

process of reconstructing memories, often influenced by person beliefs, biases, and expectations

ex: distorting memories to fit a narrative

Memory Consolidation

process of stabilizing a memory trace after initial acquisition

exs: during sleep and strengthening though repetition or review

Imagination Inflation

tendency for repeatedly imagining an event to increase the likelihood of falsely believing that the event actually occured

Intelligence

the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

g (general intelligence)

a general mental ability that influences performance on a variety of cognitive tasks

Multiple Intelligence

Coined by Howard Gardner: refers to right relatively independent intelligences (varies from country to country)

linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, intERpersonal, intRApersonal, naturalistic

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

score derived from intelligence tests that measures a person’s cognitive abilities relative to others of the same age

(mental age ÷ chronological age) × 100

Mental Age

an individual’s level of mental development relative to others

Chronological Age

the number of years a person has lived

Psychometric Principles

They are guidelines for constructing psychological tests that are reliable, valid, and standard. They ensure that a test measures what it is intended to measure.

Standardization

test that is administered and scored in a consistent manner

ex: SAT and ACT

Validity

a test that measures what it is intended to measure

ex: a driving test that accurately assesses driving skills

Construct Validity

psychological concept or trait that a test is designed to measure

ex: intelligence, personality

Predictive Validity

test’s ability to predict future performance or behavior

ex: SAT predicting college GPA

Reliability

Test that produces consistent results over time or across different administrations

ex: a bathroom scale consistently showing the same weight

Test-Retest Reliability

a measure of reliability that assesses the consistency of test scores over time

Split-Half Reliability

measure of reliability that assesses the consistency of scores on 2 halves of a test

(a good test would have consistent scores on both halves)

Stereotype Threat

The fear that one's behavior will confirm an existing stereotype of a group with which one identifies. This fear can actually lead to decreased performance.

Stereotype Lift

phenomenon where individuals benefit from positive stereotypes about their group

Flynn Effect

observation that IQ scores have been steadily rising over time

Achievement Tests

tests that measure a person’s knowledge or skill in a specific area

Aptitude Test

tests that assess a person’s potential for learning or acquiring new skills

ex: prospective career test that identify suitable occupations

Fixed Mindset

the belief that intelligence and abilities are fixed traits

Growth Mindset

the belief that intelligence and abilities can be developed through effort and practice