exam 5

Adrenergic Receptors

G protein-coupled receptors that mediate the effects of catecholamines like adrenaline and noradrenaline, categorized into alpha (α) and beta (β) subtypes.

Beta Blockers

Medications that block the effects of catecholamines at beta receptors, used to treat hypertension, anxiety, heart failure, and certain arrhythmias.

Cholinergic Receptors

Receptors that respond to acetylcholine, classified into nicotinic and muscarinic types.

Hypertension

A chronic condition of high blood pressure that can lead to serious health complications, treated with lifestyle changes and medications.

Neostigmine

An acetylcholinesterase inhibitor that increases acetylcholine levels in the synaptic cleft, used for managing myasthenia gravis and countering muscle relaxants.

Parasympathetic System

A division of the autonomic nervous system that promotes rest-and-digest activities, conserving energy and slowing the heart rate.

Raynaud’s Phenomenon

A condition characterized by episodes of vasospasm leading to discoloration of fingers and toes, often secondary to other conditions.

Sympathetic System

A division of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for 'fight-or-flight' responses, increasing heart rate and mobilizing energy reserves.

Tricyclic Antidepressants

A class of medications used to treat major depressive disorder by inhibiting the reuptake of neurotransmitters like serotonin and norepinephrine.

Adaptation

exhibited by hearing, smell, and some somatic receptors; a reduction in sensitivity in the presence of constant stimulus

Babinski’s sign

abnormal plantar reflex; great toe dorsiflexes and smaller toes fan laterally; seen until the age of 4

Bulbous corpuscles

found deep in dermis and hypodermis; detect deep continuous pressure

Chemoreceptors

detect molecules in solution

Dermatome

an area of the skin served by a particular spinal nerve

Endoneurium

Loose CT covering each axon over the myelin sheath

Epineurium

Dense: covering around the entire nerve

extreroreceptors

Excited by stimulus outside the body

free nerve endings

unmyelinated, found everywhere

interoreceptors

Excited by stimulus inside the body

joint kinesthetic receptors

proprioceptors that monitor stretch in the capsules of synovial joints; provide info on joint position and movement

lamellar corpuscles

found deep in the dermis and hypodermis; detect deep pressure initiation

mechanoreceptors

detect pressure, touch, vibration

median nerve

Part of the brachial plexus: innervates palm and muscles involved in pronating forearm, flexing wrist and fingers, adduction/abduction of medial fingers

Ulnar nerve

Part of the brachial plexus; inner area muscles involved in wrist and finger flexion

Radial nerve

The largest nerve of the brachial plexus; innervates extensors in upper limbs

mixed nerve

a nerve that contains both sensory and motor fibers

muscle spindles

proprioceptors found in the perimysium of skeletal muscles; detect when a muscle is stretched

Nerve plexus

Intersecting, nerves, control, motor functions, and sensations

neuralgia

Pain in a nerve

neuritis

inflammation in a nerve

neurofibromatosis

genetic defect where tumors form in the connective tissue of nerves

nociceptors

Detect pain

perineurium

Wrapped around each fascicle

phantom pain

Pain in an amputated limb

phrenic nerve

innvervates diaphragm; part of the cervical plexus

plantar reflex

tests the integrity of the spinal cord from L4-S2; draw a blunt object upward along the lateral aspect of the sole of the foot; normal reflex is flexion of the toes

proprioceptors

detect position, stretch, and movement

pudendal nerve

part of the sacral plexus; innervates skin and muscles of perineum and external anal sphincter, and external genitalia; means “parts to be ashamed of”

Referred pain

when visceral sensory neurons send pain sensations to the brain that are

perceived as somatic; ex. heart attack causes pain in the left arm

Reflex

involuntary skeletal muscle response to a similar that is painful or dangerous

sciatica

pressure or inflammation of the sciatic nerve; characterized by stabbing pain radiating down the leg; leg is useless if nerve is cut

shingles

herpes zoster (chickenpox) infection of the dorsal roots; skin lesions along dermatomes

tactile corpuscles

found high in the dermis, especially in hairless areas; light touch receptors

tendon organs

proprioceptors in tendons, close to skeletal muscle insertions; stimulated when muscle contracts and stretches tendon

thermoreceptors

Detect temperature change

Accommodation

the process by which the eye changes its shape to focus on objects at different distances

Amplitude

the height of the wave; determines the loudness (dB)

Anosmia

an olfactory disorder usually due to a head injury that tears the olfactory nerves, nasal cavity inflammation, neurological disorders, or zinc deficiency which is a growth factor for olfactory receptor cells

Aqueous humor

fluid between the cornea and the iris that liquid leaks from the capillaries in the ciliary body then flows forward through the pupil toward the cornea then drains into the circulatory system through the scleral venous sinus

Astigmatism

unequal curvature of the cornea or lens

Auricle/pinna

elastic cartilage covered in skin; large to collect sound waves which are condensed down the meatus

Carbuncle

fold of skin in the medial corner of the eye; contains duct of lacrimal glands

Cataracts

hardening/thickening of the lens à cloudiness

Choroid

the bulk of the vascular layer; pigmented with melanocytes to trap more light; where the vessels are that will feed the eye tissue

Ciliary bodies

extensions of the choroid; contain smooth muscle bundle

Cochlea

organ of hearing; innervated by vestibular nerve and cochlear nerve; filled with endolymph

Color blindness

a lack of one or more cones (red, green, blue)

Concave lens

a lens that is thinnest in the center; diverges light waves

Conduction deafness

impaired vibration of the tympanic membrane or ossicles due to earwax, torn membrane, otosclerosis, etc.

Cones

photoreceptor cells that detect color light waves; red, blue, green

Conjunctiva

transparent mucus membrane that coats the anterior portion of the eye and the underside of the eyelids; conjunctivitis à pink eye

Convergence

the process where multiple nerve signals from different sources converge onto a single neuron

Convex lens

a lens that is thickest in the center; converges light waves

Cornea

transparent; bulges anteriorly to converge light waves as they enter the pupil

Emmetropia

normal vision; both eyes can focus objects 20 feet away

Endolymph

a sensory fluid in your inner ear that plays a role in both your hearing and balance (vestibular) systems

Exophthalmos

anteriorly-bulging eyes due to hypertension or Grave’s disease

External auditory meatus

line in skin with hair and ceruminous glands; narrow to condense sound waves; terminated by the tympanic membrane

Focal point

the spot where light waves converge

Fovea centralis

a spot on the retina that has the densest collection of rods and cones; ideally light waves would converge here for the clearest vision

Frequency

the number of waves per second (Hz)

Glaucoma

a group of eye conditions that can damage the optic nerve.

Gustation

Sense of taste

Hyperopia

farsightedness; person can see far but can’t see to read; often the eye is too short or muscles weaken with age; can be corrected with a convex lens