English Language and Argumentation: Fallacies, Sentence Structures, and Critical Reading

REHUGO

A method used to organize evidence before writing an essay, ensuring a diverse range of evidence to avoid repetitiveness.

BEAST

A method used when evaluating your position to effectively explain your reasoning.

Fallacy

A false idea or notion; incorrectness of reasoning or belief; a flaw in the structure of an argument that renders its conclusion invalid or suspect.

Logical Fallacies

Flaws in the structure or evidence of an argument, where the conclusion doesn't follow from the premises, despite seeming plausible.

Ethical Fallacies

Misuse the arguer's credibility, character, or authority to persuade, rather than relying on sound reasons.

Emotional Fallacies

Manipulating an audience's feelings (fear, anger, pity, joy) to win an argument, bypassing rational thought.

Inductively Structured Argument

Moves from specific observations or evidence to a broader, general conclusion or prediction, aiming for probability rather than certainty.

Deductively Structured Argument

Its conclusion necessarily follows from its premises; if the starting premises are true, the conclusion must also be true.

Lines of Reasoning

The logical path or structure that connects evidence to a claim, showing how and why ideas build upon each other to support a central argument.

Post Hoc

Assumes that because event B occurred after A, it was caused by A; correlation isn't the same as causation.

Non Sequitur

Tries to tie together logically unrelated items as if they were related.

Red Herring

Partway through the argument, the arguer goes off on a tangent, raising a side issue that distracts the audience from what's really at stake.

False Dichotomy

Sets up the situation so it looks like there are only 2 choices, and one is clearly preferable to the other.

Hasty Generalization

Draws a conclusion based on too little evidence, too limited a sample, or on evidence that is bad or misinterpreted.

Oversimplification

Misunderstands the relationship between cause and effect.

Begging the Question

Claim is based on the very grounds that are in doubt or dispute; circular reasoning.

Strawman

An opponent's position is misrepresented as being more extreme than it actually is so that it's easier to refute.

Slippery Slope

Arguer claims that a sort of chain reaction will take place, but there's really not enough evidence for that assumption.

Equivocation

Using a word or phrase in an argument ambiguously or to mean two or more things.

Ad Hominem

Focuses on the person rather than the argument or evidence.

False Authority

Supporting an argument by including the testimony of a person who is not an expert on the topic.

Guilt by Association

Wrongfully assumes that because a person or thing is from a specific background, then this must be true.

Tu Quoque

Accuses the accuser of the same fault or hypocrisy.

Ad Populum

Arguer takes advantage of the desire most people have to be liked and to fit in.

Veiled Threat

Tries to frighten readers by suggesting that they will suffer adverse consequences if they do not take specific action.

Weak analogy

Relying on an analogy between 2 or more objects, ideas, situations that aren't really alike in relevant respects.

Basic Sentence Structures

Define how clauses combine.

Simple Sentence

One independent clause.

Compound Sentence

Two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction.

Complex Sentence

An independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.

Compound-Complex Sentence

Two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.

Sentence Variety

The skillful use of different sentence structures, lengths, and types to make writing more engaging.

Declarative Sentence

Makes a statement.

Imperative Sentence

Gives a command.

Interrogative Sentence

Asks a question.

Exclamatory Sentence

Makes an exclamation.

Hortative Sentence

Exhorts or encourages ('let us').