The Struggle with France (military operations)

Wars between 1689 and 1763

• The War of the League of Augsburg (1689-97)

• The War of Spanish Succession (1702-13)

• The War of Austrian Succession (1740-8)

• The Seven Years’ War (1756-63)

Overarching characteristics of wars here

• First three began in Europe and were essentially about the balance of power within the continent

• Conflict then spread across the Atlantic

• Colonists viewed them as overseas wars that they became embroiled in as subjects of the British Crown (clear via names of King William’s War, Queen Anne’s War and King George’s War)

• Colonists were eager to defeat French and Spanish neighbours - despised their Catholicism

Features of King William’s and Queen Anne’s Wars

• French forces - Native American allies

• Carried out savage attacks on frontier areas of New York and New England

• Hundreds of colonists killed, tortured and scalped

• Colonists - little help from Britain - dependent on militias and Native American allies

• 1710 - a New England force managed to annex Nova Scotia

Treaty of Utrecht 1713

• Gave Britain control of Hudson Bay, Newfoundland and Nova Scotia

• France recognised British control over the Iroquois native people - Iroquois were not consulted

• Britain gained St Kitts

War of Austrian Succession (1740-48) features

• Most of fighting - colonial militia as Britain too absorbed in Europe

• Royal Navy stronger than French and Spanish navies - also hard for enemies to send forces to America

• English-speaking colonists outnumbered French 15 to 1 - but advantage offset by French alliances with Native Americans

• New England colonies bore much of cost

• Sailors pressed into Royal Navy, men of military age fighting on land

War of Austrian Succession events (2)

• Colonists captured Louisbourg 1745

• Annoyed when British gave it back in 1748 Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle

Who made ‘Join, or Die’ image in 1754? Message?

Benjamin Franklin - English colonies unite to fight French, if do not join together the unit of colonies would ‘die’

Albany Congress - when?

June 1754

Albany Congress - where, what and who?

Called on the colonies from Virginia northward to send delegates to a meeting at Albany to discuss joint Native American policy

Albany Congress - why?

• 1748 peace was simply a truce - British and French colonists redoubled efforts to control Ohio Valley

• Only 500 British troops in America

• Board of Trade recognised Native American support would be essential in upcoming struggle against French

Albany Congress - what ended up happening?

• Failed to secure an alliance with the Iroquois people (tribe best disposed towards British)

• Adopted scheme (Benjamin Franklin’s Plan of Union) for permanent intercolonial confederation - envisaged elected colonial parliament, authority over N.A. affairs and power to levy taxes for army - but colonial assemblies rejected it

Albany Congress - significance (Franklin’s plan)

• Franklin’s Plan of Union - envisaged an elected colonial Parliament with authority over Native American affairs and defence and with power to levy taxes (support army)

• Colonial assemblies either rejected or ignored

Fort Duquesne - events

• 1753-4 Virginian planters organised the Ohio Company - secured from British government 200,000 acres in trans-Allegheny region

• At same time - French plan building chain of forts between Lake Erie and the Allegheny river - aimed for control over Great Lakes to mouth of Mississippi

• Virginian force led by 22-year old George Washington sent to forestall them 1754

• Washington found French already in possession of the fork of the Ohio River (modern day Pittsburgh) and constructing Fort Duquesne

• Fighting - Washington forced to surrender July 1754 (Battle of Jumonville Glen)

• War not declared but Britain sends General Braddock and 2000 troops to America

• On way to Fort Duquesne Braddock (unfamiliar with Native American warfare) blundered into French-Native American ambush

• Was killed and army routed July 1755 (Battle of the Monongahela)

• Next two years - Native American war parties devastated scores of frontier settlements

What happened in 1756?

• Britain declared war on France - the Seven Years’ War - or the French-Indian War as it was known in America - developed into a worldwide conflict

Britain ally in Seven Years’ War

Prussia

France ally in Seven Years’ War

Spain, Austria and Russia

Locations of Fighting in 7 Years’ War

Europe, the West Indies, Africa, India, North America

Evidence things going badly for Britain at start of war (1756-7)

• French General Montcalm captured Fort Oswego on Lake Ontario in 1756 - strengthens hold on Great Lakes

• And Fort William Henry at the southern end of Lake George in 1757

Reasons for British weakness before 1756

• Unaccustomed to remote/hostile environment

• Red uniforms easy targets

• Conflicts failed

• Lost forts - Oswego

• Guerrilla warfare - used to set-piece battles

• Failed to gain N.A. support as French offered greater rewards and allowed pillaging

• Colonial troops not good, often did not serve beyond their short enlistment period, could desert

• Civil administrators in charge lacked military expertise to handle forces

Star of war who was British commander-in-chief, and what was he unable to do?

Earl of Loudon - inability to induce the ethnically and religiously divided colonists to unite in their own defence

Who formed a ministry with the Duke of Newcastle in 1757 and was largely responsible for British victory in the 7 Years’ War?

William Pitt - British Secretary of State during Seven Years’ War

Pitt’s leadership in 7 Years’ War

• Sent 25,000 troops to America under the command of Jeffrey Amherst and James Wolfe

• Established a global strategy - priority given to defeating French in America and Caribbean

• Deployed most aggressive of commanders in America - men he appointed prepared to launch offensives

• Developed three-pronged strategy to attack Louisbourg, Ticonderoga and Quebec and retake Fort Duquesne

• Support of colonists - more colonial volunteers and support

• Ensured crown paid for equipping and provisioning of militias and reimbursed colonial assemblies

• War became seen as shared endeavour Britain and colonists - crown helped by deploying 45,000 troops by 1758

• Militia Act 1757 - established local militias to protect Britain from possible French invasion, giving him more front line soldiers

Finance in 7 Years’ War (Pitt)

• Pitt paid ally, Frederick the Great of Prussia, to attack French forces in Europe - strategy worked brilliantly, meant that even before naval superiority was ensured, France was unable to send reinforcements to North America

• Pitt reimbursed 2/5 of military expenditures made by colonial legislatures - saddled colonists and Britons with public debt to finance the wars

• Annual expense of £18 million

Role of the Navy 7 Years’ War

Won control of Atlantic and devastated French shipping - reducing reinforcements and supplies reaching New France

Huge British Fleet captures Louisbourg 1758

Native Americans in 7 Years’ War

• Cultivated their friendship to be used successfully against French - commented by Amherst that French were afraid of them

• Support much easier to gain once Britain secured Naval superiority after Battle of Quiberon Bay in 1759

• Britain supplied them with goods

Colonists involvement in 7 Years’ War

• Pitt’s reversal of rule where British officers took precedence over colonial officers - war support increased

• More involvement of colonial troops and supplies in wars

• Colonial troops contributed to building roads and forts

• Gained support of colonial legislatures

French weaknesses in 7 Years’ War

• Deserted by Native Americans

• Loss of trade to forts due to British naval dominance

• Small in number, depended on supplies from France (inhabited less fertile regions - big issue as supplies couldn’t reach New France)

• Natives took to British

Key events 1758

• 1758 British forces captured Louisbourg, then cut link between Canada and Mississippi Valley by taking Fort Frontenac on Lake Ontario

• November 1758 French abandoned Fort Duquesne - advancing British force rebuilt fort and renamed it Fort Pitt

• Elsewhere, Robert Clive won series of victories in India while Frederick the Great defeated armies of France, Russia and Austria in Europe

Key events (victories) 1759

• Battle of Quiberon Bay 1759 - Admiral Hawke smashed a French fleet at Quiberon Bay (France, southeast of Brest) - prevented France from sending reinforcements to Canada

• British troops won major victory at Minden in Germany

• Britain captured Gaudeloupe in Caribbean

1759 Britain three-pronged strategy Canada

• One force captured strategically important Fort Niagara,

• Advancing up Lake Champlain, General Amhurst captured Fort Ticonderoga

• General Wolfe led a 10,000 strong expedition up the St Lawrence River - aimed to capture Quebec, eventually defeated the French commander Montcalm on the Plains of Abraham 12 September 1759 (Battle of Quebec/Plains of Abraham) - Wolfe died but ensured capture of Quebec, effectively destroyed French power in Canada

1760 what happened

Amherst took Montreal

1763 Peace of Paris

• Britain received Canada and all French possessions east of Mississippi

• Britain acquired most of France’s Caribbean Islands

• Britain got Florida from Spain

• France ceded Louisiana to Spain