Exam 1 Study Guide - Psychology (Ch 1-4)

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms and definitions from the lecture notes (Chapters 1–4) for Exam 1.

Psychology

The scientific study of mind and behavior.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to seek, attend to, and believe evidence that supports what we already think.

Overconfidence effect

The tendency to be overly sure of one's knowledge or judgments.

Pseudoscience

Beliefs or practices mistakenly thought to be based on valid science; not supported by empirical evidence.

Critical thinking

Purposeful, reasoned evaluation of information; asks: What evidence supports this claim? Has it been studied empirically? Is it based on facts accepted by unbiased experts?

Evolutionary psychology

Studies behavior by identifying aspects shaped by evolution.

Cultural psychology

Examines how cultural context affects thoughts and preferences.

Cognitive psychology

Studies mental processes such as perception, memory, language, learning, and problem solving.

Emotional psychology

Examines how feelings, expressions, and emotion perception influence decisions and behavior.

Biological/Neuroscience psychology

Investigates the biological underpinnings of thought, action, and behavior.

Developmental psychology

Examines how people change physically, cognitively, socially, and emotionally over time.

Personality psychology

Explores stable aspects of behavior across time and situations.

Social psychology

Considers how immediate social contexts influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Clinical psychology

Focuses on causes and treatments of psychological disorders to improve well-being and functioning.

Metacognition

Awareness and regulation of one’s own thinking; helps plan and monitor studying.

Experience

Personal events used to form beliefs, not systematic evidence.

Intuition

Subjective, gut-level feelings about something.

Scientific Method

Systematic process of testing ideas through observation and controlled studies.

Measured variable

A variable whose values are recorded rather than manipulated.

Manipulated variable

A variable deliberately changed by the researcher.

Operational definition

A specific method for measuring or manipulating an abstract variable in a study.

Random sampling

Selecting participants without bias so results generalize to the population.

Correlation

A statistical relationship between two variables; does not prove causation.

Scatterplot

A graph depicting the relationship between two variables.

Positive correlation

As one variable increases, the other tends to increase.

Negative correlation

As one variable increases, the other tends to decrease.

Strong correlation

Data points are closely clustered; r value near ±1.0.

Weak correlation

Data points are dispersed; r value near 0.0.

Independent variable

The variable that is manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent variable

The variable that is measured as the outcome.

Three elements of causality

Correlation exists, temporal precedence is established, and third-variable influences are controlled.

External validity

Extent to which results generalize from sample to population.

Internal validity

Ability to rule out alternative explanations for a relationship.

Construct validity

How well the operational definitions capture the variables of interest.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Ethics panel for human research; upholds autonomy, beneficence, and justice.

Autonomy

Respect for participants’ voluntary, informed participation.

Beneficence

Maximize benefits and minimize risks to participants.

Justice

Fair selection of participants and equitable distribution of burdens and benefits.

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

Ethics body overseeing animal research; applies Replacement, Refinement, Reduction.

Replacement

Use non-animal methods when possible.

Refinement

Modify procedures to minimize animal distress.

Reduction

Use the fewest animals necessary.

Neuron

The basic signaling cell that transmits electrical and chemical signals in the body.

Dendrite

Receives chemical messages from other neurons.

Soma

Cell body; contains nucleus and sustains the neuron.

Axon

Transmits electrical impulses to other neurons.

Terminal branches

Axon terminals where neurotransmitters are released.

Myelin sheath

Fatty coating that speeds neural transmission by insulating the axon.

Glia

Supportive cells that nourish, insulate, and modulate neuronal function.

Glutamate

An excitatory neurotransmitter involved in learning and memory.

GABA

An inhibitory neurotransmitter that regulates neuronal excitability and muscle tone.

Norepinephrine

Monoamine involved in arousal and fight-or-flight responses.

Dopamine

Monoamine linked to reward, motivation, and movement.

Serotonin

Monoamine related to mood, appetite, and sleep.

Acetylcholine

Neurotransmitter involved in muscle control and various brain functions.

Action potential

Electrical impulse that travels along a neuron.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals released into the synapse to influence the postsynaptic neuron.

Synaptic cleft

Gap between presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons where neurotransmitters diffuse.

Reuptake

Reabsorption of neurotransmitters by the presynaptic neuron.

CNS

Central nervous system: brain and spinal cord.

PNS

Peripheral nervous system: nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.

Parasympathetic nervous system

Rest-and-digest system; conserves energy.

Sympathetic nervous system

Fight-or-flight system; mobilizes the body for action.

Adrenal glands

Glands atop the kidneys; produce adrenaline and cortisol.

Adrenaline (epinephrine)

Hormone/ neurotransmitter involved in the fight-or-flight response.

Cortisol

Stress hormone involved in energy regulation and metabolism.

Hindbrain

Lower brain region coordinating autonomic functions; includes cerebellum, pons, and medulla.

Cerebellum

Brain region for motor coordination and balance.

Pons

Brainstem structure involved in sleep and autonomic functions.

Medulla oblongata

Brainstem region controlling vital life-sustaining functions.

Limbic system

Circuitry for emotion and memory.

Hippocampus

Memory formation and navigation; contextual processing.

Amygdala

Emotional significance processing, especially fear.

Basal ganglia

Movement planning and execution; initiating and stopping movement.

Thalamus

Relays sensory information and regulates alertness.

Hypothalamus

Regulates hunger, thirst, temperature, hormones, and reward.

Forebrain

Front portion of the brain containing higher cognitive functions.

Cerebrum

Largest brain region responsible for thinking, memory, language, and voluntary actions.

Wernicke’s area

Brain region involved in language comprehension.

Broca’s area

Brain region involved in speech production.

Corpus Callosum

Bundle of nerve fibers joining the two cerebral hemispheres.

Split-brain

Surgical severing of the corpus callosum to reduce seizures; hemispheric isolation.

Contralateral organization

Each side of the body is largely controlled by the opposite brain hemisphere.

EEG

Electroencephalography; records electrical activity from the brain via scalp electrodes.

FMRI

Functional MRI; measures brain activity by detecting blood flow changes; provides correlational maps.

Epigenetics

Study of how gene expression is influenced by environmental factors.

Sensation

Process by which sensory organs receive stimulus energies and convert them to neural signals.

Perception

Neural processing that creates a mental representation of external stimuli.

Absolute threshold

Minimum stimulation detectable 50% of the time.

Difference threshold

Minimum detectable difference between two stimuli 50% of the time.

Weber’s Law

Detection probability is proportional to the stimulus magnitude.

Weber fraction

Ratio of the minimum detectable change to the original stimulus magnitude.

Wavelength

Distance between consecutive crests/troughs of a wave; determines color in light or hue.

Frequency

Cycles per second; determines pitch in sound.

Amplitude

Height of a wave; determines brightness (light) or loudness (sound).

Order of light processing

Cornea → Pupil → Lens → Retina → Photoreceptors → Optic nerve → Brain.

Rods

Photoreceptors for low-light vision; not color vision; more numerous than cones.

Cones

Photoreceptors for color vision and high-acuity vision; three types.

Trichromatic theory

Color perception is based on three types of cones; explains color vision but not afterimages.

Opponent-process theory

Color processing occurs in opposing channels; explains afterimages and some color blindness.