Chapter 8: Book Notes

What does the maximalist position argue?

The maximalist position argues that a problem is more widespread and intense than most people realize.

What do maximalists warn about?

Maximalists warn that a particular type of victimization that has often been overlooked is now reaching record-breaking proportions.

Why are maximalists considered alarmists?

They are considered alarmists because they believe dire consequences will follow unless drastic steps are taken to address the growing problem.

What do maximalists seek to do in response to these issues?

Maximalists seek to mobilize public support and gather resources to combat the problem they see as a serious menace.

What assumption does the maximalist perspective make?

The maximalist perspective assumes the worst about the current situation.

What kind of response do maximalist claims often provoke?

Frightening claims made by maximalists usually provoke a predictable response known as the minimalist position.

How is the minimalist position characterized?

The minimalist position is characterized by skepticism and a tendency to question maximalist claims about the problem’s scope and severity.

What do minimalists think about maximalist estimates?

Minimalists consider maximalist estimates to be greatly exaggerated, either for well-intentioned reasons or for self-serving purposes.

What are maximalist and minimalist viewpoints considered to be?

Both maximalist and minimalist viewpoints are considered ideologies—sets of beliefs that shape how people interpret social problems.

When did the issue of missing children become an emotional and divisive public concern?

The issue became highly emotional and divisive in the late 1970s as people debated how to respond to this disturbing problem.

When was kidnapping first outlawed, and under what legal system?

Kidnapping was outlawed hundreds of years ago under English common law as a vicious crime.

When did news reports of abductions start appearing in the United States?

News reports of abductions began appearing in the late 1800s.

What happened during the 1920s that increased fears about stranger danger?

During the 1920s, several kidnapping cases occurred that represented parents’ worst fears about strangers abducting their children.

What infamous kidnapping case in the early 1930s led to changes in federal law?

In the early 1930s, a kidnapper killed the baby of a celebrity aviator even after receiving ransom money, leading to new laws making ransom demands and transporting hostages across state lines federal crimes.

When did the FBI gain authority to investigate kidnappings?

After the early 1930s kidnapping laws were enacted, the FBI was authorized to enter kidnapping investigations that crossed state lines.

Does kidnapping always require physical force?

No, force is not necessary—an individual can be taken through trickery or manipulation, which is known as inveiglement.

What happened in the early 1980s regarding public awareness of kidnapped children?

In the early 1980s, the suffering of kidnapped children and their families was rediscovered by the victims’ movement, journalists, and government officials.

What broader phrase was used to describe the problem of kidnapping in the 1980s?

The problem became known under the broader term “missing children,” which referred to youngsters whose whereabouts were unknown to parents or caretakers.

What does the term “missing child” specifically refer to?

A “missing child” refers to a situation where a frightened adult responsible for the child’s well-being does not know the child’s whereabouts.

Why are statistics about kidnappings especially sensitive?

Because kidnapping is one of the most heinous and emotionally charged crimes imaginable, any lack of accurate data tends to fuel fear, confusion, and moral panic.

What was the situation regarding kidnapping data at the beginning of the 1980s?

During the early 1980s, when a nationwide panic about child abductions broke out, no organization or government agency was systematically tracking the scope of the problem. This lack of data made it hard to know how widespread kidnappings actually were.

Did the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) track kidnappings?

No. The NCVS did not ask respondents about kidnappings involving household members. It also did not (and still doesn’t) ask about any crimes committed against children under the age of 12.

Why was the Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) system not helpful for studying kidnappings?

Kidnapping was not listed as a Part One index offense in the UCR, which meant it wasn’t considered a major crime category. Instead, kidnapping arrests were grouped with lesser crimes under categories like “offenses against family and children” or “all other offenses,” making the data unclear and incomplete.

What system began improving kidnapping data collection later on?

The National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) started keeping more detailed records of kidnappings, classifying them under the category “crimes against persons.”

How much data did NIBRS collect by 2016?

By 2016, NIBRS had gathered data from around 6,850 police departments that served nearly 100 million Americans, providing a clearer national picture of kidnapping cases.

What did the 2016 data reveal about kidnapping victims?

Out of roughly 18,650 kidnappings reported in 2016, nearly 14,500 (about 78%) involved adults, not children. This showed that most kidnapping victims were grown individuals, which contradicted the public perception that child abductions were the majority of cases.

What did maximalists argue during the early 1980s kidnapping panic?

Maximalists claimed that kidnapping had become dangerously common and that society’s complacency was putting more people—especially children—at risk. They urged the public to become more aware and to mobilize against the growing threat.

What was the first organization focused on child safety in the U.S.?

The National Child Safety Council, established in 1955, was the first private and voluntary organization devoted to child safety awareness and education.

What did the 1974 Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act do?

It required that runaway youth be sheltered rather than arrested or confined, recognizing them as vulnerable individuals instead of criminals.

What was significant about California’s 1977 law on custody agreements?

In 1977, California became the first state to make violating a child custody agreement a felony, addressing parental abductions as a serious criminal issue.

What was the purpose of the 1980 Parental Kidnapping Prevention Act?

This law prevented state courts from modifying custody decrees made after divorces and created a locator service that tracked “fugitive parents” through Social Security numbers.

What was the 1984 Missing Children’s Assistance Act (also known as the Assistance Act)?

Passed in 1984, it established the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children (NCMEC) as a national resource hub, connecting federal agencies, state clearinghouses, and private organizations to coordinate efforts in locating missing children.

What did the 1990 National Child Search Assistance Act require police to do?

It required law enforcement officers to immediately enter missing child information into police databases to speed up searches and improve coordination.

What was the goal of the 1991 International Parental Child Kidnapping Act?

This act made international parental abductions a federal crime, ensuring that parents who took children across national borders without custody rights could be prosecuted.

How did the 1996 Victim Reunification Travel Program help families?

It provided financial assistance to parents whose children were unlawfully taken to other countries by noncustodial family members, helping them travel to reunite with their children.

What did the 2003 Amber Alert legislation establish?

It helped states develop a nationwide AMBER Alert system, allowing officials to broadcast alerts quickly to enlist the public in the search for abducted children.

What was the 2006 Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act designed to do?

It required the FBI to enter reports of missing or abducted children into the NCIC database within two hours of receiving a police report, ensuring faster federal response.

What was the purpose of the 2015 Bringing Missing Children Home Act?

This law required law enforcement agencies to notify NCMEC whenever a child in foster care goes missing, strengthening protection for vulnerable youth.

How did minimalists view the national attention on missing children?

Minimalists believed the issue was exaggerated by maximalists, arguing that their inflated statistics caused unnecessary panic among parents.

Who did minimalists think contributed to public fear?

They blamed businesses that profited from fear-based products, journalists who sensationalized stories, politicians who exploited the issue for popularity, and nonprofit groups that exaggerated data to gain funding or attention.

Did the FBI investigate all kidnapping cases involving strangers?

No. The FBI did not investigate certain cases even when a stranger might have been involved, often limiting their focus to cases that crossed state or federal lines.

What are “throwaways,” and how do they differ from runaways?

“Throwaways” are teens forced out by neglectful or angry parents, while runaways leave voluntarily. Minimalists argued that many “missing” children fell into these categories rather than being kidnapped.

How did maximalists and minimalists differ in their views on missing children?

Maximalists believed many missing children were victims of foul play and would never be found. Minimalists thought most were runaways, taken by a parent, or temporarily lost, and would eventually return safely.

How did the media contribute to confusion about the issue?

Early activists (maximalists) released inflated estimates that scared the public, while later journalists adopted low official estimates without question — both extremes distorted reality.

What research project did the Department of Justice fund to study missing children?

The National Incidence Study of Missing, Abducted, Runaway, and Throwaway Children (NISMART), funded as part of the 1984 Missing Children’s Assistance Act, was created to gather data on missing children in the U.S.

What issue did NISMART researchers find with the term “missing children”?

They discovered that the term caused confusion because it grouped together very different situations—such as runaways, family abductions, and stranger kidnappings—that had different causes, victims, and solutions.

What is a “stereotypical kidnapping”?

A stereotypical kidnapping involves a stranger or slight acquaintance who detains a child overnight, takes them at least 50 miles away, and either demands ransom, intends to keep or harm the child, or sexually exploits or kills the victim. (These are the rare, high-profile cases often shown in the media.)

What are short-term abductions by nonfamily members?

These involve an acquaintance or stranger who takes a child by force, threat, or deceit, and detains them for more than an hour, often to commit a sexual assault. These cases are more common than stereotypical kidnappings.

What are family abductions?

Family abductions typically occur during custody disputes, when one parent defies a court order and takes the child from the parent granted custody. These cases may trigger Amber Alerts if the child is believed to be in danger.

Which kidnappings were the focus of the 2011 NISMART–3 study?

The 2011 NISMART–3 study focused on stereotypical kidnappings—the kind carried out by strangers that match the public’s traditional image of kidnapping.

What are sexually motivated kidnappings?

These kidnappings are committed by sexual offenders who abduct children for sexual purposes. They account for 63% of all cases.

What are ransom-motivated kidnappings?

These are kidnappings carried out to extort money, drugs, or valuables, usually from the victim’s parents. They make up about 12% of cases.

What are rage-motivated kidnappings?

These involve violent attacks driven by anger or emotional outbursts, but without sexual assault. They represent roughly 8% of all cases.

What are intent-to-keep kidnappings?

These cases typically involve infants or toddlers and occur when the abductor intends to raise or keep the child permanently. They also account for about 8% of all cases.

What are the general demographics of kidnapping victims?

Over 80% of the victims were girls, and half were 12–17 years old. Over 30% were Black, and 25% were Hispanic. About 85% did not live with their biological or foster parents. Nearly 20% had past or current involvement with the criminal justice system. Around 15% had parents with legal troubles, and 25% had parents with drug problems.

What was the relationship between victims and offenders?

About 62% of offenders were complete strangers, while the rest were slight acquaintances.

Who were most of the kidnappers demographically?

75% were men, mostly young (18–35 years old) and single (69%). 45% were Black, and 20% were Hispanic. More than half had drug or alcohol problems. Around 10% had diagnosed mental illnesses. Only 15% were employed, and about 33% had prior criminal records.

How did kidnapping trends change between 1997 and 2011?

The total number of cases stayed about the same—roughly 100 cases each year—even though the U.S. population grew during that time. However, there were notable shifts in demographics: A higher percentage of Hispanic victims in 2011 (24%) compared to 1997 (8%). Fewer children in 2011 lived with two biological or adoptive parents (16%) than in 1997 (47%).

What was the child-search movement, and why was it important?

The child-search movement was part of the victims’ rights movement that emerged in the early 1980s. It became one of the most influential efforts to draft new laws and reform criminal justice procedures focused on missing children.

What popular phrase captured the public’s sentiment during the early 1980s about missing children?

The phrase “Our children are our future” reflected growing national concern about child safety and motivated greater public and political action.

Before child-search organizations were established, who did parents rely on when their child went missing?

Parents were entirely dependent on police departments to take action.

What problem existed with early police procedures for missing children?

Many departments required families to wait 24–72 hours before an official investigation could begin, wasting precious time when the child’s life could be in danger.

Why did police enforce these waiting periods?

They were based on old assumptions that most missing child cases were not life-threatening and would “solve themselves” when the child returned home safely.

According to family survival guides, what immediate actions should parents take when a child goes missing?

Parents should: Issue a BOLO (Be On the Look Out) bulletin to nearby departments, Prepare photos to distribute to schools, hospitals, and the media, and Begin searches with bloodhounds immediately.

When and why was the Amber Alert system created?

The Amber Alert system was established in the late 1990s to mobilize the public quickly after a child abduction, with support from the federal government.

How widespread did the Amber Alert system become?

By 2005, all 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands had their own Amber Alert systems.

What does “Amber” stand for, and who inspired the system’s name?

“Amber” stands for “America’s Missing: Broadcast Emergency Response.” It was named in memory of Amber Hagerman, a nine-year-old girl kidnapped and killed in Texas in 1996.

What are the two main goals of the Amber Alert system?

To deter kidnappers by warning them they will be caught quickly. To rescue children fast before they are injured or killed.

What age groups were most often victims in Amber Alert cases?

Most victims were infants, toddlers, or early teens.

What did reports reveal about the demographics of the victims?

The majority of victims were nonwhite, and girls slightly outnumbered boys.

How effective was the Amber Alert system between 2005 and 2016?

During that period, over 2,400 alerts were issued nationwide, leading directly to about 530 successful recoveries, or 22% of cases.

How many missing person reports did the NYPD receive in 2010, and how many were resolved?

The NYPD received about 25,000 missing person calls in 2010, and 90% were resolved by the end of the year.

How many of those cases involved children, and how many were suspected kidnappings?

Around 3,500 cases involved children ages 10–17, with 265 suspected to be involuntary disappearances.

When did New York City begin using cell phone Amber Alerts?

The NYPD began using Wireless Emergency Alerts to send text messages citywide in 2013, several years after other areas had adopted the technology.

Why is immediate mobilization so important in child abduction cases?

A study of 600 kidnapping cases showed that three-quarters of victims were killed within the first three hours, and 90% within 24 hours — proving that quick action is critical.

What does this data suggest about long-term abductions?

It’s rare for long-term abductions to lead to successful recoveries, emphasizing the importance of fast responses and public cooperation.

What are “child lures”?

Child lures are deceptive tricks abductors use to entice children into dangerous situations where they can be exploited.

How has child safety training evolved beyond the old “don’t take candy from strangers” warning?

Modern training teaches children to recognize and reject a wide range of manipulation tactics, not just avoid strangers offering gifts. Kids are taught how to respond to more subtle or familiar-sounding lures.

What happened during the social panic of the mid-1980s regarding child safety?

During the mid-1980s panic, the maximalist viewpoint that kidnappings were widespread led to a flood of new safety products and awareness campaigns, and department stores began promoting child safety displays.

What technologies or services were introduced to help protect children?

Dentists offered to implant microchips in children’s teeth for identification. Graphic designers created age-progression images of missing children. Shopping centers offered fingerprinting for infants and toddlers. Playgrounds, schools, and stores were redesigned to limit access and escape routes.

What is a “Code Adam” response, and where is it used?

A Code Adam is an emergency response system used in stores and public places to immediately mobilize staff when a child goes missing on the premises. Tens of thousands of stores in the U.S. have adopted this protocol.

Historically, when were adults held responsible for harming children?

In the past, adults were rarely held accountable unless a child suffered permanent injury or death —a situation labeled as “cruelty to children.”

What was the House of Refuge movement, and what was its purpose?

Originating in the early 1800s, the House of Refuge movement aimed to rescue beaten and neglected children and prevent them from becoming delinquents.

When was the first child protective agency founded, and what was it called?

The Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (SPCC)—the world’s first child protection agency—was established in New York City in 1874.

What was the “child savers” movement, and what did it create?

The child savers movement of the early 1900s sought to prevent delinquency caused by neglect and abuse. It led to the creation of juvenile courts and reform schools for troubled youth.

Why were physicians hesitant to report child abuse in the early 20th century?

Doctors often cited confidentiality and a reluctance to get involved in legal matters, which prevented many from exposing child abuse cases.

What is the “battered child syndrome,” and when was it identified?

Identified in 1962, battered child syndrome described nonaccidental, repeated injuries inflicted by parents or guardians, revealing cycles of excessive punishment.

What legal actions were taken after the recognition of battered child syndrome?

Between 1962 and 1966, all 50 states passed laws forbidding parents from abusing their children, marking a major shift in child protection law.

What did the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act of 1974 establish?

It outlawed all forms of maltreatment, including neglect, physical, sexual, and emotional abuse, and required that children in CPS cases be given Guardians ad Litem (GALs) in court.

What are the main categories of child maltreatment?

Neglect: Failure to meet physical, emotional, or educational needs. Physical abuse: Harming through violence (e.g., shaking, scalding, confinement). Sexual abuse: Acts like incest, fondling, rape, or commercial exploitation.

What did the Keeping Children and Families Safe Act of 2003 add to the definition of maltreatment?

It broadened the definition to include any act or failure to act that causes or poses an imminent risk of serious physical, emotional, or sexual harm.

Which form of child maltreatment is most common but hardest to address?

Child neglect is the most common but also the hardest to detect and respond to for social services and law enforcement.

How did public focus shift during the 1990s?

Public and professional attention shifted from physical abuse to sexual abuse, due to rising awareness and media coverage.

Why must communities properly fund Child Protective Services (CPS)?

Adequate funding ensures CPS can effectively monitor cases and protect children, preventing tragedies that occur from under-resourced systems.

How many children died while under CPS supervision from 2008–2013?

Over 785 children died from abuse or neglect during this period, even while their cases were being monitored by child protection agencies.

What are some physical effects of child abuse?

Physical repercussions can include genital injuries, unwanted pregnancies, venereal diseases, loss of appetite, sleep disruptions, and bed-wetting.

How can child abuse affect cognitive development?

Children may experience shortened attention spans and trouble concentrating.

What behavioral symptoms can result from abuse?

Children may show hostile-aggressive behavior, tantrums, drug use, delinquency, withdrawal, and even repetition of abusive relationship patterns.

How can abuse lead to self-destructive behavior?

Victims may develop suicidal thoughts, engage in high-risk behavior, or self-mutilate.

What psychopathological effects can abuse have?

Abuse can cause neuroses, character disorders, psychotic thought patterns, and multiple personalities.