English Honors Terms

Sapere aude, incipe

Dare to know; begin

Law of Identity

A thing is what it is. (A = A)

Law of Non-Contradiction

A statement cannot be both true and false at the same time. (A cannot be A and not A.)

Law of the Excluded Middle

A statement is either true or false; there is no middle ground. (A is either A or not A.)

Logical Possibility

Could this happen without breaking logic?
(Example: A square circle is not logically possible.)

Physical Possibility

Could this happen in the real world? (Example: A person jumping 20 feet in the air is not physically possible.)

Technological Possibility

Could this happen using current technology? (Example: Sending humans to Mars is technologically possible.)

Skepticism

A mindset that questions claims and demands good evidence.

Difference Between Knowledge and Belief

• Belief: You think something is true.

  • Knowledge: You have a justified, true belief — backed by evidence or strong reasoning.

Reasonable Doubt

A level of doubt that is sensible based on the evidence

Uncertainty, Ambiguity, Ambivalence

• Uncertainty: You don’t know.

• Ambiguity: Something has more than one meaning.

  • Ambivalence: You have mixed feelings.
    Confucius: true wisdom is knowing what you don’t know.

Deductive Reasoning

Reasoning from general → specific.
If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true.

Inductive Reasoning

Reasoning from specific → general.
Conclusion is probable, not guaranteed

Abductive Reasoning

Reasoning to the most likely explanation from limited facts

Inference to the Best Explanation

Choose the explanation that fits the evidence best, even if you can’t be certain.

Probability

A measure of how likely something is.

Bayesian Thinking

Adjust your beliefs based on new evidence.
("Proportion your belief to the evidence.")

Anecdotal Evidence

Using personal stories instead of solid data.

Availability Error

Thinking something is true because it’s easy to recall, not because it’s common.

Pareidolia

Seeing patterns that aren’t really there, like faces in clouds.

Motivated Reasoning / Confirmation Bias

Believing things that support what you already want to be true.

Scout Mindset / Soldier Mindset

• Scout mindset: Wanting to see the truth, even if it hurts.

  • Soldier mindset: Defending your current beliefs at all costs.

Negativity Bias

Paying more attention to negative things.

Self-Serving Bias

Taking credit for success and blaming others or luck for failure.

Open-Mindedness

Being willing to update your views when shown good evidence.

Ockham’s Razor

The simplest explanation that fits the facts is usually best.

Game Theory

The study of strategic decision-making — how people choose actions when outcomes depend on others.

Nash Equilibrium

A situation where every player is doing the best they can, given what everyone else is doing.
(No one gains by changing their choice alone.)

Prisoner’s Dilemma

A game where cooperation gives the best outcome, but each person has an incentive to betray, leading to a worse outcome for both.

Honesty

Tell the truth and admit when you’re unsure.

Humility

Recognize your limits; be willing to learn.

Integrity

Stay consistent with your values and evidence.

Epistemic Rationality

Thinking in ways that help you get to the truth.

Instrumental Rationality

Thinking in ways that help you reach your goals

Red Herring

Distracting from the real issue.

Appeal to Authority

Trusting someone just because they’re an authority

Appeal to Fear/Force/Pity

Using emotions instead of logic

Faulty Analogy

Comparing things (apples to oranges)

False Cause

Assuming A caused B just because they happened together

False Dilemma

Acting like there are only two options

Sunk Cost Fallacy

Sticking with something because you already invested in it.

Gambler’s Fallacy

Thinking past random events affect future ones

Two Wrongs Make a Right

Justifying bad behavior because others do it

Ad Hominem

Attacking the person, not the argument

Straw Man

Misrepresenting someone’s argument to make it easier to attack.

Circular Reasoning (Begging the Question)

Using the conclusion as a premise.

Texas Sharpshooter

Picking data that fits your argument and ignoring the rest.

Appeal to Ignorance

“It’s true because you can’t prove it false.”

No True Scotsman

Moving the goalposts to protect a claim

Appeal to Tradition

“It’s right because it’s always been that way.”

Bandwagon

“Everyone believes this, so it’s right.”

Hasty Generalization

Making a broad claim based on too few examples

Hazy Comparison

Vague or unclear comparison

Argument from Incredulity

“I don’t understand it, so it must be false.”

Tu Quoque

“You did it too!”

Special Pleading

Exempting yourself from the rules without reason

Appeal to Utility/Pragmatism

“It works, so it must be true.”

Appeal to Preference

“I like it, so it must be true.”

Ethos

Appeal to credibility

Logos

Appeal to logic

Pathos

Appeal to emotion

Kairos

Saying the right thing at the right time

Anaphora

Repeating at the start of sentences

Epiphora

Repeating at the end of sentences

Metaphor

Comparing one thing to another (no like or as)Sim

Simile

Comparing one thing to another using “like” or “as”

Alliteration

Repetition of initial consonant sounds

Assonance

Repetition of vowel sounds

Puns

Wordplay using multiple meanings