Unit 2: Cogntition

most of the new AP Psych unit 2 vocab terms

2.1: Perception

The process by which sensory information is organized, interpreted, and consciously experienced, allowing individuals to understand and interact with their environment.

2.1: Top-Down Processing

perceptions are influenced by expectations and prior knowledge, guiding the interpretation of sensory information

2.1: Bottom-Up Processing

the process where perception starts with the sensory input, leading to the construction of a whole perception based on individual sensory details; building from the bottom

2.1: Schemas

cognitive frameworks that help organize and interpret information based on prior experiences and knowledge; accomodation and assimilation

2.1: Perceptual Set

a mental predisposition to perceive things in a certain way influenced by expectations, emotions, and experiences; influences the way people INTERPRET things

2.1: Gestalt Psychology

a school of thought in psychology that examines how people organize visual elements into cohesive wholes, emphasizing the importance of patterns and context in perception

2.1: Closure (Gestalt)

the tendency to perceive incomplete figures as complete, filling in gaps to create a whole

2.1: Figure/Ground (Gestalt)

the organizational principle of perception that allows us to distinguish an object (the figure) from its background (the ground)

2.1: Proximity (Gestalt)

objects that are close to each other are perceived as a group or related

2.1: Similarity (Gestalt)

the principle that objects that are similar in appearance are perceived as part of the same group or pattern

2.1: Selective Attention

the process of focusing on a specific object or task while ignoring others, allowing for better processing of information

2.1: Cocktail Party Effect

a phenomenon in which an individual can focus on a single conversation in a noisy environment, despite the presence of multiple conversations; selective attention in use

2.1: Change Blindness

the failure to notice significant changes in a visual scene, often due to a lack of attention

2.1: Innatention(al Blindness)

the phenomenon where an individual fails to perceive an unexpected stimulus in plain sight due to focused attention on a different task or object

2.1: Binocular Depth Cues

visual information from both eyes that helps perceive distance and depth accurately ; eg. retinal disparity and convergence

2.1: Retinal Disparity

the fact that the left and right fields of vision provide slightly different visual images when focusing on a single object

2.1: Apparent Movement/Motion

the perception of movement when there is no actual movement occurring; eg. action lines in comic books

2.1: Convergence

the inward angle of the eyes when focusing on a close object, helping to determine depth perception; makes eyes look cross-eyed sometimes

2.1: Monocular Depth Cues

visual cues for depth perception that require only one eye; eg. linear perspective and relative size

2.1: Relative Clarity

a monocular depth cue where objects that are clearer and more detailed appear closer than those that are hazier

2.1: Relative Size

a monocular depth cue where objects that appear smaller are perceived as being farther away than larger objects

2.1: Texture Gradient

the gradual change in texture and detail of surfaces as they recede into the distance, making closer objects appear more textured and detailed than those farther away

2.1: Linear Perspective

parallel lines appear to converge as they recede into the distance, creating a perception of depth and distance

2.1: Interposition

a type of monocular cue in which one object partially obscures or covers another object, giving the perception the object that is partially covered is farther away

2.1: Perceptual Constancy

the ability to perceive objects as unchanging despite changes in sensory input, such as variations in lighting, distance, or angle

2.2: Concept

a mental category used to classify objects, events, or ideas based on shared properties or characteristics

2.2: Prototype

a mental representation of the most typical example of a concept, used to categorize and identify objects or ideas that share similar features

2.2: Assimilation

the process of incorporating new experiences or information into existing cognitive schemas or frameworks without changing them

2.2: Accommodation

the process of altering cognitive schemas or frameworks to incorporate new experiences or information that do not fit existing schemas

2.2: Algorithms

step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution to a problem if followed correctly; like social media esque

2.2: Heuristics

mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that simplify decision-making and problem-solving but do not guarantee a correct solution; eg. availability and representativeness

2,2: Representativeness Heuristic

a heuristic where decisions are based on comparisons to mental representations of stereotypes, prototypes, or preconceived outcomes

2.2: Availability Heuristic

overestimating the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples of that event come to mind; eg. seeing break-ins on the news and believing the same will happen to you

2.2: Mental Set

a tendency to approach problems in a specific way, often based on prior experiences, which can hinder creativity or problem-solving; influences the way people THINK about things

2.2: Priming

how exposure to one stimulus may influence a response to a subsequent stimulus, without conscious guidance or intention

2.2: Framing

the way information is presented affects decision making, influencing perceptions and choices

2.2: Gambler’s Fallacy

the belief that past events can influence the outcome of future events in random situations, such as assuming that a losing streak in gambling increases the chances of winning next

2.2: Sunk-Cost Fallacy

the tendency to continue investing in a losing proposition based on what has already been invested, rather than future value

2.2: Executive Functions

a set of cognitive processes that include working memory, flexible thinking, and self-control, crucial for managing thoughts, actions, and emotions

2.2: Divergent Thinking

the ability to generate multiple potential solutions to a problem or question, encouraging creativity and exploration of various ideas; multiple correct answers

2.2: Convergent Thinking

the ability to find the single best solution to a problem by narrowing down multiple possibilities, typically through logical reasoning and analysis; one correct answer

2.2: Functional Fixedness

a cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used, inhibiting creative problem-solving and thinking

2.3: Memory

the mental process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information over time; essential for learning and experiences

2.3: Explicit Memory

conscious, intentional recollection of facts and experiences

2.3: Episodic Memory

long-term memory that corresponds to life events and personal facts

2.3: Semantic Memory

a type of explicit memory that involves the recollection of facts, concepts, and general knowledge about the world

2.3: Implicit Memory

a type of long-term memory that is not consciously recalled, but influences thoughts and behaviors, including skills and conditioning

2.3: Procedural Memory

he implicit or unconscious memory of how to perform tasks, skills, and actions

2.3: Prospective Memory

the ability to remember to perform intended actions in the future, such as appointments or tasks

2.3: Long-Term Memory

a type of memory that stores information over extended periods, including both explicit and implicit memories

2.3: Long-Term Potentiation

a persistent increase in the efficacy of synaptic transmission in certain brain cells, which is associated with the strengthening of neural connections and is considered to be a cellular basis for abnormal learning and memory processes

2.3: Working Memory Model

a cognitive model that describes the structures and processes used to temporarily hold and manipulate information. It includes components such as the central executive, phonological loop, and visuospatial sketchpad

2.3: Working Memory

a cognitive system that temporarily holds and manipulates information for immediate mental use and is essential for tasks such as reasoning, comprehension, and learning.

2.3: Visuospatial Sketchpad

a component of the working memory model responsible for processing visual and spatial information, enabling individuals to manipulate and store visual images

2.3: Sensory Memory

the initial, very brief storage of sensory informationthat lasts only a few seconds and takes in information from the environment through the senses.

2.3: Iconic Memory

a type of sensory memory that specifically retains visual images for a very short duration, typically lasting only fractions of a second

2.3: Echoic Memory

a type of sensory memory that specifically retains auditory information for a brief period, typically lasting a few seconds

2.3: Short Term Memory

the stage of memory that holds a small amount of information for a limited duration, generally around 20 to 30 seconds, allowing for active processing and manipulation

2.3: Automatic Processing

the unconscious encoding of information, such as space, time, and frequency, without active rehearsal

2.3: Effortful Processing

the encoding of information that requires conscious effort and attention, often involving strategies like rehearsal and organization

2.3: Encoding

the initial process of converting incoming sensory information into a format that can be stored in memory

2.3: Storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time, enabling retrieval when needed

2.3: Retrieval

the process of accessing and bringing stored information back into consciousness, allowing it to be used or applied

2.3: Semantic Processing

encoding information by focusing on the meaning of words or ideas, rather than just their surface featuresThis facilitates deeper understanding and better retention of information.

2.3: Structural Processing

encoding information based on its physical features, such as structure or appearanceThis involves analyzing the way words look or sound, which tends to result in shallow processing and lower retention.

2.3: Phonemic Processing

a medium level of encoding and processing information based on its sound, like rhyming or sound similarities

2.4: Mnemonic Devices

a memory aid or technique used to help remember information, often by linking new information to something already known or easily remembered

2.4: Method of Loci

a mnemonic technique, helps with memorization by associating information with locations in a familiar environment

2.4: Chunking

a strategy that involves breaking down information into smaller, manageable units, or "chunks," to enhance memory retention and recall

2.4: Catergorization

the process of grouping similar items or concepts together to improve organization and memory retention

2.4: Spacing Effect

information is better retained when study sessions are spaced out over time rather than crammed into a short period

2.4:Memory Consolidation

the process of transforming short-term memories into long-term, durable memories

2.4: Massed Practice

a study technique where learning sessions occur in a short period of time without breaks; eg. cramming

2.4: Serial Position Effect

tendency to remember the first and last items in a list better than those in the middle

2.4: Primacy Effect

the tendency to better remember the first items presented in a list

2.4: Recency Effect

the tendency to better remember the last items presented in a list

2.5: Rehearsal

the cognitive process of actively manipulating and repeating information to enhance memory retention

2.5: Autobiographical Memory

the recollection of personal experiences and specific events in one's life, often involving emotions and contextual details

2.5: Retrograde Amnesia

the inability to recall events, information, or experiences that occurred BEFORE a major brain injury

2.5: Anterograde Amnesia

the inability to FORM new memories AFTER a major brain injury

2.5: Alzheimer’s

a progressive neurological disorder that causes memory loss, cognitive decline, and changes in behavior, primarily affecting elderly individuals

2.5: Infantile Amnesia

the inability of adults to recall memories from early childhood, typically before age three or four

2.6: Recall

the process of retrieving information from memory without cues or hints

2.6: Recognition

the process of identifying previously learned information or experiences when presented with cues or options

2.6: Retrieval

the process of obtaining information from memory, which can involve both recall and recognition

2.6: Testing Effect

the phenomenon where information is better retained when it is retrieved during testing compared to when it is simply studied

2.6: Context-Dependent Memory

the improved ability to retrieve information when the context during encoding and retrieval is the same, often influenced by environmental cues

2.6: State-Dependent Memory

the improved ability to retrieve information when an individual's internal state at the time of encoding matches the state during retrieval, often influenced by emotions or physiological conditions

2.6: Mood-Congruent Memory

the tendency to recall experiences and memories that are consistent with one's current mood, leading to enhanced retrieval of positive memories when in a positive mood and negative memories when in a negative mood

2.6: Metacognition

the awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes, including the ability to monitor, control, and plan one's learning strategies; thinking about thinking

2.7: Forgetting Curve

a model that shows the rate at which information is forgotten over time, illustrating how memory retention declines quickly shortly after learning, followed by a gradual stabilization

2.7: Proactive Interference

the situation where OLDER MEMORIES INTERFERE with the retrieval of newer memories

2.7: Retroactive Interference

the phenomenon where NEWER MEMORIES DISRUPT the retrieval of older memories

2.7: Encoding Failure

the inability to store information in long-term memory due to insufficient attention or processing during the encoding stage

2.7: Tip-of-the-Tounge Phenomenon

a cognitive phenomenon where an individual is unable to retrieve a word or name from memory, but has a strong feeling that retrieval is imminent

2.7: Repression

a defense mechanism that involves unconsciously blocking out painful or traumatic memories from awareness

2.7: Source Amnesia

the inability to remember where, when, or how previously learned information was acquired, often leading to false memoriesthat can impact decision-making and personal beliefs.

2.7: Misinformation Effect

when a person's recall of episodic memories becomes less accurate due to the introduction of misleading information after the event

2.7: Constructive Memory

analyzes how the brain creates memories; the idea that memories are not simply a passive recording of events, but rather are actively reconstructed each time they are recalled

2.7: Imagination Inflation

a type of memory distortion where imagining an event that never happened increases a person's confidence in the memory of that event