imperial image: sources

res gestate and suetonius

When was Horace, Odes 1.37 written and what was its significance? What are some key quotes and arguments?

Cleopatra

**Date**: 23BC

**Significance:** focuses on Cleopatra’s role in and after Actium (not Mark)

**Key arguments:**

* The poem was directly addressed to the reader encouraging them to prepare for a feast
* The focus of the poem is not Octavian but on Cleopatra
* For majority of the poem he demonises her emphasising the danger she posed to Rome and her lack of control @@“a maddened queen was still plotting the Capitol’s and the empire’ ruin, with her crowd of deeply - corrupted creatures sick with turpitude, she, violent with hope of all kinds, and intoxicated”@@
* The next lines are a problematic simile as she is compared to a dove fleeing from a hawk
* Shows Octavian military superior but Cleopatra as venerable
* Possible Horace chose dove with connection to Venus
* Doves sacred and alluding to Cleopatras doomed love affair
* The poem ends by addressing her suicide - Cleopatra is most impressive and no thought to flee → suicide was not shameful in Rome
* Horace presents Cleopatra as a formidable enemy brought done by a superior force of Octavian - praises Octavian

When was Horace, Epode 9 written and what was its significance? What are some key quotes and arguments?

A Toast to Actium

**Date**: 30BC

**Significance:** **:** Celebrates Octavian’s victory at Actium

**Key arguments:**

* One of the earliest works celebrating Octavian’s victory at Actium
* Horace speaks of Octavian’s triumph, soon to be cele brated at Rome and creates a suitable atmosphere
* He goes onto remind the reader of the reason for the battle → @@*“A Roman, - you’ll not credit posterity— Sadly, ups stick and arms himself, For a women’s sake”*@@
* The unnamed Roman is Antony, he also does bot name Cleopatra - reforming to her only as a *‘shameful paillon’*
* By focusing on Antony and Cleopatra Horace is reminding the reader of why battle was necessary
* The only mention of the battle is of that the Gallic King Amyntas deserted Antony and joins Octavian
* He leaves the battle event vague and up to the readers imagination - compares to previous battles

When was Horace, Odes 3.6 written and what was its significance? What are some key quotes and arguments?

Moral Decadence

**Date**: 23BC

**Significance:** **:** deals with the issue of moral laxity + links this with misfortunes that had befallen the Roman people in recent years / explore the insecurity held by many Romans in the recent civil wars

**Key quotes**: ‘you’ll still expiate your father’s sins, till you’ve restored the temples’, ‘meditate sinful affairs’

**Key arguments:**

* Horace explore an insecurity held by many Romans that the recent civil wars and defeats suffered from foreign enemies were punishments from the gods and they were angry be- cause of two reasons: @@*“Romans, though you’re guiltless, you still expiate your fathers’ sins”*@@
* They allude to a great misdeed committed by a prior generation, it could refer to the very founding of Rome when Romulus killed his twin brother Remus
* This was the first act of civil conflict in Rome and some Romans believed that the civil wars that he plagued all of Rome’s history were punishment for this act
* Horace proceeds to suggests another reason: the gods are angry because the people have been neglecting their religious duties and hammers his point home wit a catalogue of Rome’s recent military embarrassments
* The cause of military failure is attributed to a slip in the moral standards of living Romans → here Horace shifts his blame from the “fathers” of previous generations and aims his accu- sation firmly at his contemporary Romans: @@“Our age, fertile in its wickedness, has first defiled the marriage bed, our offspring, and homes: disaster’s stream has flowed from this source through the people and the fatherland”@@
* Roman religious belief held that chaste women were particularly loved by the gods ad so there were several religious rituals that required that the participants be married and chaste
* This was particularly true in times of national emergency → the Romans also believed that the gods hated infidelity which is why Horace links recent military failures with the idea of sexual morals
* The closet Rome came to defat was at the Punic wars and so the Romans who fought in them were seen as heroes which Horace praises to → and to get the gods back on the Ro- mans side they must behave well and look for example from he heroes and that the temples are restored

When was Horace, Odes 3.14 written and what was its significance? What are some key quotes and arguments?

Augustus Returns

**Date**: 23BC

**Significance:** celebrates Augustus’ return from foreign campaign + stress on morality, mentions Octavia and Livia as role models

**Key quotes**: ‘matchless husband’

**Key arguments:**

* Was written to commemorate the return of Augustus from military cam- paigns in Gaul → it touches on themes of Augustan poetry: the peace that comes from war, prosperity for the Roman people and the importance of religious observances
* It is notable for the way it holds up the women of the imperial household as role models for the audience @@*“May his wife rejoice in a matchless husband, having sacrificed to true gods, appear now with our famous leader’s sister, and, all dressed in holy ribbons, the mothers of virgins and youths, now safe and sound”*@@
* Livia is explicitly linked with the practice of Roman religion as she has been participating in ritual sacrifice → her virtue is highlighted even more strongly because she has been sacrificing in her husbands absence
* Augustus trusts her to maintain the affairs of the household and to honour the gods while he is away

When was Horace, Odes 4.4 written and what was its significance? What are some key quotes and arguments?

Drusus and the Claudius

**Date**: 13BC

**Significance:** **:** focuses on the military achievements of Tiberius and Drusus and the role of Augustus as a father-figure

**Key quotes**: ‘like the winged agent of the bright lighting bolt’, ‘with care, in a fortunate household, by Augustus’ fatherly feelings’

**Key arguments:**

* Horace celebrates the achievements of Tiberius and Drusus against the Germanic tribes living around the Alps in 15-14 BC
* When reading of the achievements of the young generals that Augustus was the supreme com- mander in Rome and thus technically responsible for all military victories
* By praising the successes of Tiberius and Drusus he is indirectly glorifying Augustus himself
* Towards the beginning of the poem a simile compares Drusus to a ‘lion-cub newly weaned from fresh milk’
* This simile coveys the youth and inexperience of Drusus but does not suggest that he is an ineffective commander
* The lion-cub of Horace’s simile is fated to kill a deer despite its inexperience
* Horace intended for the audience to be impressed by the innate power and skill of the lion-cub of the audience to be impressed by the innate power and skill of the lion-cub and thus of Drusus
* A central theme of the poem is the role education and proper upbringing → when this poem was published Tiberius and Drusus was Augustus’ step-sons
* Nevertheless Horace praises the role Augustus played in shaping the men they had become: @@“They came to realise what mind and character nurtured, with care, in a fortune household, by Augustus’ fatherly feelings towards his stepsons, the Neros, could do”@@
* Drusus is subsequently likened through a simile to a lion
* With this innate skill and careful nurturing by Augustus he is shown to be an impressive young man indeed
* Horace goes onto mention one of the most glorious achievements of Tiberius and Drusus’ ances- tors; the defeat of the Carthaginian general Hasdrubal by Gaius Claudius Nero in 207 BC during the Punic wars
* This victory was particularly sweet to the Romans since Hasdrubal was the brother of the infamous Hannibal
* The final section of the poem takes the form of a speech put in the mouth of Hannibal himself → He curses the foolishness of the Carthaginians to pit themselves against the power of Rome and pours such flattery that it seems completely unbelievable

When was Horace, Odes 4.15 written and what was its significance? What are some key quotes and arguments?

To Augustus

**Date**: 13BC

**Significance:** communicates the idea that peace and prosperity reign in Rome, thanks to Augustus

**Key quotes**: ‘brought back Parthian pillars’, ‘gates of Romulus’ temple’

**Key arguments:**

* Opens with a self-deprecating apology → Horace tells his reader that he had tried to write military poetry but Apollo had stopped him @@*“Phoebus condemned my verse, when I tried to sing of war and conquered cities”*@@
* Whether this is meant literally or as a reference to Augustus’ personal influence on Horace’s literary career is unclear
* Horace goes on to explain that now Crassus’ standards have been recovered from the Parthians and the gates of Janus’ temple have been closed there is no with the renewed prosperity of Italy
* Horace explicitly states that this blessed state of peace and plenty exists because of Augustus’ position at the head of the state: @@*“With Caesars protecting the state, no civil disturbance will banish the peace, no violence, no anger that forges swords, and makes mutual enemies of wretched towns”*@@
* This links closely with the myth of the Saturnian Golden Age, where a charmed state of peace and plenty brought about a single ruler
* By inviting his readers to make his link Horace is most likely supporting Augustus’ regime by suggesting that should Augustus be overthrown the Golden Age would end just as when Saturn was overthrown by Jupiter
* In closing lines of the poem Horace suggests rekindling the old Roman tradition of singing stories of past leaders on festival days
* This ties in with Augustus’ own drive to restore Roman religious practice to its bygone glory days and also give Horace the opportunity to praise Augustus’ ancestors: @@*“we’ll sing of Troy Anchises, and the people of Venus”*@@

When was Horace, Carmen Saeculare written and what was its significance? What are some key quotes and arguments?

**Date**: 17BC

**Significance:** composed to be performed during the ludi seculars 17BC

**Key quotes**: ‘Phoebus, Diana’, ‘mightier than rome’

**Key arguments:**

* It addresses carious gods praising their greatness and asking for blessings on the Roman people → the deities selected for inclu- sion each had some connection to Augustus himself or to his regime
* For example his patron god Apollo and Apollo’s twin sister Diana feature as the addresses of the hymn - As in previous poems when speaking of Apollo Horace distinguished between warlike Apollo and peaceful Apollo perhaps a veiled reference to the militaristic and civic versions of Augustus himself @@*“Gentle and peaceful Apollo, lay down your arms, and listen now to the young lads’ supplications”*@@
* Venus also features, in her role as the mother of Aeneas and the progenitor of the Julian clan → at first the presence of Ilithyia a relatively minor goddess of childbirth is less explicable, however the reason for her inclusion is explained through a clear reference to Augustus’ social and moral legislation Horace beseeches Ilithiya: @@*“Goddess, nurture our offspring, bring to fruition the Senate’s decrees concerning the wedlock of women who’ll bear us more children, the laws of marriage*@@
* Horace’s Carmen Saeculare is clearly intended to be a celebration of Augustus’ new age → the language of fertility reminds the audience of the Golden Age of peace and plenty that Augustus brought
* References to religious and social reforms simultaneously remind the audience how they are expected to behave in Augustus’ new world order

When was Ovid, Metamorphoses written and what was its significance? What are some key quotes and arguments?

**Date**: 8AD

**Significance:** provides the narrative account of Julius Caesar + the reasons for his promotions

**Key arguments:**

* His poem deals with the theme of metamorphoses (change) of Augustus’ change with Julius Caesar
* Ovid wanted this poem to encompass the stories of the whole universe and so it begins with creation and via a large number of myths and it ends with a celebration of the most recent metamorphosis at Ovid’s time of writing
* The deification of Julius Caesar
* The section starts by outlining the reason why Julius Caesar was made a god
* Ovid’s account of Julius Caesar’s achievements is very brief and vague but this ensures the reader is not reminded of the events of Julius Caesar’s dictatorship nor of his civil wars
* Ovid goes onto explain the reason why Julius Caesar was deified: @@*“There is no greater achievement among Caesar’s actions than that he stood father to our emperor”*@@
* In these lines Ovid stresses Julius Caesar’s relationship to Augustus encouraging the reader to focus on this aspect as well -Ovid then lists some of Julius Caesar’s military victories in the next lines but again he stresses that these achievements pale into insignificance when compared with his relationship to Augustus
* At the end of the list Ovid invites his reader to reimagine their own history: @@*“Therefore, in order for the emperor not to have been born of mortal seed, Caesar needed to be made a god”*@@
* Following this explanation the scene shifts to the home of the gods
* Venus the progenitor of the Julian clan is frantic as she realises that Julius Caesar is about to be assassinated
* She catalogues the pains she has had to suffer first at the hands if the mortal hero Diomede during the Trojan War,
* Then as her son Aeneas was forced to wander in search of a new city
* The assassination of Julius Caesar is elevated to mythological status by association with these events from Roman legend
* Despite Venus’ protests it is clear that the assignation has been fates to occur Jupiter King of the gods and voice of fate reassures Venus that Julius Caesar’s time to die has come but his son Augustus will avenge him: @@*“Augustus, as heir to his name, will carry the burden placed upon him alone, and will have us with him, in battle as the most courageous avenger of his father’s murder.”*@@
* By outing this prophecy (which goes on to detail events in the civil wars) in Jupiter’s mouth, Ovid legitimizes Octavin’s civil wars.
* This section also underlines a specific aspect of Augustus’ relationship with Julius Caesar: Augustus as his avenger
* Ovid described Julius Caesar’s metamorphosis into a comet and ends hi account by showing him contemplating Augustus’ deeds from on high and judging them superior to his own
* Ovid praises Augustus as greater than his father and goes so far as to suggest that he too will become a god: @@“I beg that the day be slow to arrive, and beyond our own lifetimes, when Augustus shall rise to heaven, leaving the world he rules, and there, far off, shall listen, with favour, to our prayers!”@@

When was Propertius, Elegies 3.4 written and what was its significance? What are some key quotes and arguments?

War and Peace

**Date**: 20BC

**Significance:** they key event at the time: the returning of the legionary standards from the Parthian campaign

**Key arguments:**

* He looks at ahead to Augustus’ victory over the Parthians, stressing the wealth and material gain from the campaign, he extorts his readers to join in with the fighting to win glory and do their duty to Rome → *“*@@*Men, the rewards are great: far lands prepare triumphs”*@@
* The patriotic tone of the poem is somewhat undercut in the final lines where it becomes apparent that Propertius has no intention of joining the battle himself as he looks out the window alongside his girlfriend watch- ing the triumphal procession, safe from harm → @@*“I’ll begin to look, pressing my dear girl’s breast, and scan the names of captured cities.”*@@
* Propertius must have been a conflict poet, as they were encouraged to write patriotic poems with military themes but his persona was one of a pampered playboy than a serious soldier, in this poem we see this as he supports Augustus’ regime but he only engages himself to an extent

When was Propertius, Elegies 3.11 written and what was its significance? What are some key quotes and arguments?

Woman’s power

**Date**: 28BC

**Significance:** conveys the power of Cleopatra over Antony and the threat she posed to Rome

**Key quotes**: ‘the witch of Colchis’ (Medea + Jason), ‘Omphale’ (enslaved Hercules)

**Key arguments:**

* Propertius is a writer of love poetry - he explains how he has been en- slaved by love for his unnamed lover
* He presents himself as powerless against chains of love, subject to her power
* Compares his situation to mythical heroes who had been ruled by love for powerful women - Jason, Achilles and Hercules - He then goes to explain how Cleopatra enslaved Antony in the same way: @@*“Cleopatra, who heaped insults on our army, a woman worn by her own attendants who demanded the walls of Rome and the Senate bound to her rule, as a reward from her obscene husband”*@@
* The same as Horace, he refuses to name Antony - reduces his status im- plying that he was under her control
* While reminding the audience that the marriage between Antony and Cleopatra was obscenity because it was bigamous
* The poem goes onto contrast a threatening Egypt with a glorious Rome
* He stresses the danger posed by Cleopatra by introducing iconic symbols of Egypt and answering each with an iconic symbol of Rome
* In this way Cleopatra’s assault is made to seem particularly threatening and targeted
* Like Horace, Propertius skips over the events of the battle, limiting his account to a few words: @@*“You fled to the wanderings mouth of frightened Nile”*@@
* This clearly references to the fact that during the battle Cleopatra gave the order for Egyptian ships the battle Cleopatra gave the order for her Egyptian ships to flee
* The poem ends with a reference to Apollo of Actium and an explicit warning to sailors on the Ionian sea to fear the might of Caesar
* Praising Octavian’s victory over Cleopatra, glorifying the battle by stressing Cleopatra’s strength
* The title ‘women's power’ shows that he is under the thrall of his lover, which means he sympathises with Antony
* His work presents Octavian’s victory over Cleopatra as glorious and Octavian is made to seem the saviour of Rome
* Calls into question whether Antony is really to blame

When was Propertius, Elegies 3.12 written and what was its significance? What are some key quotes and arguments?

Chaste and Faithful Galla

**Date**: 20BC

**Significance:** provides a dissenting voice which stressed the negative impact of Augustus’ foreign campaigns

**Key quotes**: ‘how could you leave Galla crying’

**Key arguments:**

* Not all artistic output of the Augustan period was supportive of the cam- paign at the edges of the Empire, Propertius focuses on the negative impact on the foreign wars on those who was left at home, Galla the wife of the addressee of the poem Postumus suffers because her husband is away at war @@*“Postumus, how could you leave Galla crying, to follow Augustus’ brave standard as a soldier? Was the glory of Parthia’s spoils worth so much to you, with Galla repeatedly begging you not to do it? If it’s permitted may all you greedy ones perish equally, and whoever else prefers his weapon to his faithful bride!*@@”
* The image of the chaste and faithful Galla in tears begging her husband not to leave her to go on campaign aims to arouse the sympathies of the reader, it is difficult to side with Augustus here as the motivation for Parthia is for material gains, where other poems emphasises the positive of foreign wars this poem bluntly reminds the reader that some soldiers do not return, imag- ining Galla fearfully waiting for rumour of his death of the sight of his ashes → This is similar to the story of Ulysses, the Latin name for Odysseus the Greek who is on travels trying to get home
* The question is does the comparison to Ulysses portray Postumus as a hero's, if yes then support- ive of Augustus and if no the damming to both

When was Propertius, Elegies 4.6 written and what was its significance? What are some key quotes and arguments?

The Temple of Apollo at Actium

**Date**: 16BC

**Significance:** recalls the Battle of Actium and glorifies the Temple of Palantine Apollo + Actian Games

**Key arguments:**

* The temple of Palatine Apollo is the setting and theme of the poem → praises Augustus
* The opening stanza is evocative of a festival day complete with a ritual sacrifice - the identity of the narrator is unclear
* Propertius goes onto invoke Calliope, the muse of the epic poetry → this seems like an odd choice since Propertius is not writing epic poetry but elegy
* Calliope’s name elevates the status of his work and the theme of his work to the lofty height of epic, which is seen to be the highest form of literature in antiquity
* Propertius moves away from the theme of the Temple of Platine Apollo and begins to retell the story of the battle of Actium
* All the might of Rome’s gods in invoked here with Propertius making reference to Quirus, Jupiter, Nereus and Apollo
* Apollo’s awe-inspiring appearance is described through comparisons with myth and then the gods proceeds to speak directly to Augustus, lavishing praise upon him and declaring his allegiance: @@*“O Augustus, world-deliver, sprung from Alba Longa acknowledged as greater than your Trojan ancestors conquer nowby sea: the land is already yours: my bow is on your side and every arrow burdening my quiver favours yours“*@@
* Propertius is clearly referring to the close personal bond that Augustus suggested he had Apollo
* Focus here is on the glory of Apollo and how we worked alongside Augustus to secure victory
* This version of events is in stark contrast with his previous treatment of the Battle of Actium
* Towards the end of the poem, the tone shifts yet again as the scene moves away and back to the festival atmosphere of the beginning @@“I have sung of war enough: Apollo the victor now demands my lyre and shreds this weapons for the dance of peace”@@
* He stresses the peace and plenty that have arisen as a result of Augustus’ victory in war
* Also refers to ritual symbols such as @@“white robes”, “gentle grove” and “roses”@@
* An interesting reference to Bacchus complicates the atmosphere: @@“Let the muse fire the mind of drunken posts Bacchus you are used to being an inspiration to your Apollo”@@
* Antony defeated his god is now united with Augustus’ patron deity just as all of Rome had be- come united

When was Suetonius, The Lives of the Twelve Caesars: Augustus written and what was its significance? What are some key quotes and arguments?

Date: 121AD

When was Virgil, The Aeneid written and what was its significance? What are some key quotes and arguments? outside source\]

**Date**: 70-19BC

**Significance:**

* Book 8: divinely crafted set of armour and a shield exerted by Vulcan
* The shield: has all images of all of Aeneas descendants and their great feats
* in the centre of the shield is a depiction of the Battle of Actium in 31BC

What is this coin? What is on it’s obverse and reverse and what’s it’s significance?

Octavian Pax Denarius

**Date:** 32-29BC

**Obverse:** bare head of Octavian

**Reverse:** Pax standing, left holding olive branch, right holding cornucopiae

**Text:** Caesar Divi Filius

**Significance:**

* Commissioned especially to pay his armies
* Convey his promise to the soldiers and people of Rome – through war, peace
* Goddess Pax (personification of peace) with her symbols of peace
* Cleopatra the implied disruptor of peace
* Connection to Caesar through text (divine son)

What is this coin? What is on it’s obverse and reverse and what’s it’s significance?

Aureus with Gaius and Lucius as first among the young

**Date:** 2BC-4AD

**Mint:** Lyon Mint

**Obverse:** Augustus wearing civic crown (awarded for ending the civil wars and saving Roman citizens)

**Reverse:**

* Princes with shields and spears – displays their military might (or honorary spears given to nobility)
* **simpulum (ritual ladle) and lituus (crooked wand)** – refer to the priestly colleges they were connected to; display they are pious like Augustus

**Text:**

* lists their achievements
* Consul designate – decreed by Senate (will be consuls in future years)
* **Augustus’ sons** – most important title – source of their power
* **Princeps iuventutis** – title given to Gaius, no power but equated him with Augustus (who was often called the princeps)

**Significance:**

*  Depicts Gaius and Lucius as obvious successors to Augustus’ position

What is this coin? What is on it’s obverse and reverse and what’s it’s significance?

Augustus with Religious Implements

**Date:** 12BC

**Obverse:** He has a youthful image

**Reverse:**

* Lituus, Simplun - sarcificial implements
* Tripod and Patera 

**Significance:**

* Reinforces the connections between Augustus and state religion
* His role as a religious leader 
* He is performing sarcifices, which connects him with the gods 
* Lituus is used for augury and he is a member of the College of augurs

What is this coin? What is on it’s obverse and reverse and what’s it’s significance?

Denarius with eight-rayed comet

**Date:** 19-18BC

**Obverse:** Portrait of Augustus with laurel wreath

**Reverse:** Eight rayed comet with tail pointing upward

**Significance:**

* Star represents Caesar’s comet from the commemorative games
* Symbolises Caesar as a god, rather than a portrait
* Stresses his divinity and encourage people to forget him as a man

What is this coin? What is on it’s obverse and reverse and what’s it’s significance?

Aureus with Bare Head of Octavian

**Date:** 43BC

**Obverse:** Bare head of Octavian

**Reverse:** Head of Julius Caesar with wreath 

**Text:**

* C CAESAR COS PONT AUG (Gaius Caesar (Octavian), consul, priest of the augurs)
* C CAESAR DICT PERP PONT MAX (Gaius Caesar (Julius), dictator in perpetuity, pontifex maximus

**Significance:**

* Shows Octavian alongside his ‘father’ Julius Caesar. This serves to align the young Octavian as heir to Julius Caesar’s power
* Julius Caesar was one of the first to use his image on coins, by following his example, Octavian highlights the similarities between Caesar and himself
* The text highlights the similarities BUT ALSO the differences between Octavian and Caesar
* Each side of the coin follows the same model – this is meant to display Octavian as a new Julius Caesar
* Two positions on J. Caesar’s side – Dictator in Perpetuity and Pontifex Maximus – Both positions were for LIFE
* Octavian’s side has him as CONSUL – a high position but elected every year


1. Difference is KEY – J. Caesar was killed because his assassins saw him as a tyrant with unconstitutional power
2. Octavian is suggesting that his policies would be different and that he was less threatening to those in power
* Laurel Wreath is a reference to the military victories of Julius Caesar

What is this coin? What is on it’s obverse and reverse and what’s it’s significance?

Octavian seated on a bench

**Date:** 28BC

**Obverse:** Head of Octavian with Civic Crown

**Reverse:** Octavian seated on bench holding scroll

**Text:** 

* Imperator Caesar, son of a god, consul for the sixth time; He restored the laws and rights to the People of Rome

**Significance:**

* Introduces the idea that Octavian was a saviour of the Republic
* Imperator: text
* Divi Filius: text
* Civic Crown: saviour of the Republic for ending the civil wars – Cultural Hero
* Restorer of laws and rights to the people – text – Culture Hero
* Octavian in toga with scroll: image of peace and justice – Culture Hero

What is this coin? What is on it’s obverse and reverse and what’s its significance? \[outside source\]

Aureus with bearded Octavian

**Date:** 38BC

**Obverse:** Head of Octavian, bearded

**Reverse:** Head of Julius Caesar, with Laurel Wreath

**Text:**

* CAESAR DIVI.F. (Caesar (Octavian) Divi Filius – Caesar son of a god)
* DIVOS IULIUS (Divine Julius)

**Significance:**

* Bearded – Octavian still displaying mourning for Julius Caesar
* In 42 BC – the Senate had declared Julius Caesar a god
* Now Octavian makes an effort to show himself as ‘divi filius’ – ‘son of a god’
* Communicates his semi-divine status to people of Rome
* Gives himself an aura of importance that his opponents could not rival
* He could claim to be on par with Aeneas and Hercules (demigods)

What is this coin? What is on it’s obverse and reverse and what’s its significance? \[outside source\]

Rostral column of Octavian

**Date:** 30-29BC

**Obverse:** Rostral Column ornamented with two anchors and six beaks of gallerys, surmonted by statue of Octavian

**Reverse:** Head of Julius Caesar, with Laurel Wreath

**Significance:**

* It was erected on the Forum in 36 BC by Octavian to commemorate its victory over Sextus Pompey, who was the last center of opposition to the Second Triumvirate.
* The victory over Sextus was hard to achieve and Octvian spared to no means to commemorate it.
* This column stood between the Forum’ Rostra and the spring on the Forum called Lacus Curtius.
* It is likely that the entire column was built from melted beaks of enemy’s ships. Its was possibly gilded, as well as Octavian’s statue that was placed on top of it.

What is this coin? What is on it’s obverse and reverse and what’s its significance? \[outside source\]

Octavian as Apollo

**Date:** 28BC

**Obverse:** Laureate bust of Apollo of Actium with the features of Octavian

**Reverse:** Octavian veiled and in priestly robes, ploughing with a team of oxen. The metaphor of Octavian ploughing was to push the idea that Octavian was ploughing a new Rome and creating a better, more prosperous land.

**Text:** IMP CAESAR (Imperator Caesar)

**Significance:**

* a religious leader (Apollo) and a bringer of peace and prosperity, legitimising his wars

What is this coin? What is on it’s obverse and reverse and what’s its significance? \[outside source\]

Cistrophus of Antony

**Date:** 38BC

**Obverse:** conjoined busts of Mark Antony, wearing ivy wreath, and Octavia facing right

**Reverse:** Dionysus standing on a plinth, holding a canatharus and thyrsus (symbols of Dionysus) between two snakes

**Text:**

* ANTONINVS M IMP COS DESIG ITER ETTERT (Marcus Antonius, Imperator, Consul elect for the second and third times)
* III VIR RPC (Triumvir for the establishing of the Republic

**Significance:** Antony chose Dionysus as his patron god because of the aspects he wanted to promote which were associated with the god

\

What is this coin? What is on it’s obverse and reverse and what’s its significance? \[outside source\]

Augustus distributing suffimenta to the people

**Date:** 16BC

**Obverse:** Laureate Augustus

**Reverse:** Three figures – Augustus distributing suffimenta (gifts of sulphur to make torches for rituals during the festival) to the people before the ludi saeculares

**Text:**

* L ME-SCI-NIVS (Lucius Mescinius Rufus – name of magistrate who minted the coin, helps date to 16BC)


* AUG SVF P (Augustus Suffimenta Populo – Augustus having given suffimenta to the people)


* LUD S (Ludi Saeculares)

What is this coin? What is on it’s obverse and reverse and what’s its significance? \[outside source\]

Aureus of Nero

**Obverse:** Image of ruler with laurel wreath and very Augustan hairstyle

**Reverse:** Image of Livia, holding the symbols of Pax

**Text:**

* Tiberius Caesar, son of Divine Augustus / PONTIFEX MAXIMUS

**Significance:** Clearly wants to emulate Augustus; not just his depciiton as Emperor (and perhaps connecting him as heir) but depiction as a Religious leader and a bringer of peace

What is this coin? What is on it’s obverse and reverse and what’s its significance? \[outside source\]

Aureus of Tiberius

**Obverse:** Image of ruler bareheaded with draped bust

**Reverse:** Religious implements; priestly symbols

**Text:**

* Nero Caludius Caesar Drusus, conqueror of the Germans, prince of Youth
* Co-opted as a priest into all colleges above the usual number with the authority of the Senate

**Significance:**

* Emphasisies statement he made thst said he would model his rule on that of Augustus. COnnection to several Rome’s most important religious orders - like Augustus, depiciting himself as a Religious leader

Zanker of Augustus’ building programme

At the same time as his ‘restoration of the Republic’ and the creation of his new political style, Augustus also set in motion a program to ‘heal’ Roman society.

When was the Sebateion of Aphrodisias built

began AD 20 in the reign of Tiberius but wasn’t complete until early in the reign of Nero in AD 60.

What is the Sebasteion made of?

Marble structure

What is the significance of the Sebasteion

an example of how Augustus’ image was used and updated after his death

What was on the Sebesteion’s gate and imagery?

* 2 panels on the gate
* One depicting Aeneas
* One depicting Venus progentitor (founder of Julian line)
* Many images – gods, mythological heroes, representations of the Julio-Claudian emperors

What were on the panels of the Sebasteion

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* Many panels celebrate the victories of Roman emperors over foreign peoples
* Along these lines, we see an image of Augustus and Nike (victory)
* Between them is an image of a trophy – plundered armour of a fallen enemy
* At the bottom a fallen soldier and a Roman eagle
* Similar to representations in Augustus’ reign

Nicholls on the Ara Pacis

The imagery speaks of benefits of peace plenty abundance

When was the Ara Pacis built

13BC but completed in 9BC

what material is the ara pacis made of

white marble

where is the ara pacis located

rome

what is the significance of the ara pacis

it is an altar to the goddess pax

who is pax and what does it mean in relation to the ara pacis

1. Pax – personification of peace
2. became a central feature in his message of the bringer of the new Golden Age (Cultural Hero)

who dedicated the ara pacis to Augustus and where did it say this

The Res Gestae (section 12) states that the Senate voted to dedicate the Ara Pacis to Augustus after his return from campaigning in Spain in 13 BC

how is the ara pacis presented as humble

Appears humble and a Republican as it is the Senate not him that presented the honour

what was the vines a symbol of

it was used as a symbol of augustus’ golden age due to its relation with fertility and natural bounty.

what was the altar in the ara pacis

The altar was the functional portion of the monument, the place where blood sacrifice or burnt offerings would be presented to the gods.

what panels were included?

Aeneas, Lupercal, Goddess Roma, Tellus and Religious

what is shown in the Aeneas panel and what’s its significance

* Aeneas with head covered taking part in religious ritual


* Aeneas arrives to Italy and making sacrifice to household gods of Troy (becoming household gods of Rome)
* Shows religious observances
* Respect for the ancient customs and rituals
* Honouring household gods (penates)

what is shown in the Lupercal panel and what’s its significance

* Romulus and Remus as babies with she-wolf (educated guess)
* Grown figures – Mars (left), Faustulus (right), shepherd who raised Romulus and Remus Connection to founding of Rome and Mars

what is shown in the Roma panel and what’s its significance

* Goddess Roma
* Appears – seated on pile of weapons confiscated from enemy (peace by making them unable to make war)
* Represents personification of Rome
* Link between war and peace

what is shown in the Tellus panel and what’s its significance

* Much debated on the central figure
* Tellus – personification of earth (fertility and abundance)
* Domesticated animals and flowers
* Pax – Peace
* Venus Genetrix – Venus the mother
* Left – personification of sky
* Right – personification of sea
* Most common argument – Tellus
* Fits with depiction of earth between sky and sea.
* Domesticated animals and mother imagery consistent with this

what is shown in the Religious panel and what’s its significance

* Religious procession
* Over 50 figures (debate over who)
* Agreed – Augustus, Livia, Agrippa
* Toga not military dress – Civic leader and religious role model
* Imperial children – children innovation in frieze art
* Shows the future of Rome and continuation of the Golden age

beard on the mausoleum of augustus

It was an aggressive assertion his commitment to be buried in Rome.

when was the mausoleum of augustus built

completed in 23BC and opened to the public in 27BC

what material is the mausoleum of augustus made of

brick walls, featuring two pink obelisks and surrounded by parkland

what dimensions was the mausoleum

90m in diameter, 42m high

what was the significance of the mausoleum of augustus

Augustus’ monumental final resting place

what was significant about the mausoleum’s size

* Mausoleum was built on a grand scale
* Biggest Mausoleum in Rome at the time
* Goal was to be seen and heard by the masses


* Large monuments made a big impression to all the people of Rome

what was in intention of the mausoleum

* to convey idea of power and authority


* Visual language – big = important

who else was the mausoleum for

* Mausoleum was not just for Augustus
* Had places for his family and closest friends Burials were not allowed in city limits
* Having it set off would have given it a greater sense of grandeur
* Would have towered over the country buildings

how else did Octavian improve the lives of the citizens

Park land was open to the public – whole complex could have been seen as a gift to the city

why was the position of the campus marts important

it was close to many other buildings commissioned by Augustus or supporters (Forum of Augustus, Ara Pacis, Pantheon, Egyptian obelisk)

what was this a demonstration of

* Finally, was begun before he had defeated Antony
* Likely ca. 32 BC
* Statement to the people – Octavian
* demonstrating his commitment to the people and
* city of Rome
* Contrasted specifically against Antony whose will said he wanted to be buried in Alexandria

when was the kalabsha gate made

30BC

what materials was the kalabsha gate made of

limestone

what was the significance on the kalabsha gate

an example of Augustus’ diverse presentation throughout the empire

how is augustus presented on the kalabsha gate

* Augustus is presented opposite the Egyptian goddess Isis on the Kalabsha Gate


* Part of a temple complex dedicated to a Nubian sun god named Mandulis
* Shows Augustus embracing the gods he did not associate himself with in the city of Rome
* Although never crowned ruler of Egypt, he is depicted in the style of the pharaohs
* They say ‘the Roman’ and ‘Caesar the god, son of a god’
* Dressed in Egyptian style – shirtless, large collar-style necklace, Egyptian style crown, short skirt

how is he identified on the kalabsha gate

cartouches

is it positive that Augustus is presented with Egyptian gods?

* The Romans did not always impose their religion on the people of the Empire


* Isis, for example, was a favorite deity of some Roman citizens despite her Egyptian origins
* Thus it was not scandalous for Augustus to identify with gods like Isis or Mandulis


* However, they weren’t used in his Roman imagery where he focused on gods like Apollo, Pax, and those related to the Julian clan


* Other reliefs in the temple show Egyptian deities
* crowning Augustus – show they approve of his rule
* Also Augustus making offerings to Egyptian deities – still promotes his pious image

nicholls on the forum of augustus

this forum is his vision for a civic, governmental, religious space

when was the forum of augustus built

20BC but completed in 2BC

what was the most significant building/focal point in the forum of augustus

Temple of Mars Ultra - the avenger → Battle of Phillip 42BC

what was the significance of the forum of augustus

Fulfillment of promise he had made in 42BC (before Battle of Philippi), when he vowed to erect a temple to Mars Ultor (Mars the Avenger) if he won the battle

what was A in the forum of augustus

**two long porticoes, lined with columns**

* Lined with statues of famous Romans – Augustus himself, his ancestors, famous generals/politicians

When was the Prima Porta built?

20BC

What was the Prima Porta made of

Marble

What is the significance of the Prima Porta

Marble statue thought to be a copy of original bronze statue vowed to Augustus by Senate in 20BC; commissioned to celebrate Augustus’ Parthian campaign

How does the Prima Porta depict Augustus as Pater Patriae?

* Augustus depicted as a young man


* Athleticism emphasized in the musculature of arms, legs, breastplate


* Clear visual reference to the Doryphorus of Polycleitus (which was widely thought to embody physical perfection)


* Mimicking the pose implies Augustus possessed similar excellence, adlucutio

How does the Prima Porta depict Augustus as an Imperator?

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* The Right Arm – the right arm is raised in the pose of a general or emperor addressing his army
* Oratorical pose known as adlocutio
* This with his general’s cloak suggest the emperor addressing his troops - Imperator
* The Left arm – positioned to hold a pole but now lost
* Could have been: a spear (connection to Doryphorus); a consul’s staff; or a recaptured legionary standard

What does the statue of cupid of the Prima Porta represent?

\
* Cupid was the son of Venus and the dolphin was one of her animals
* Links Augustus to Venus and the divine
* The dolphin became a symbol of Augustus’ great naval victory over Mark
* Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE, a conquest that made Augustus the sole ruler of the Empire.
* The cupid astride the dolphin sends another message too: that Augustus is descended from the gods.

What does the barefoot on the Prima Porta represent?

\
* further link to the divine
* Roman sculpture did not often show mortals barefoot – detail suggests he was more than mortal


* Perhaps evidence this version was after his death – doesn’t want to be seen as a god in life

What does the Prima Porta breastplate showcase?

* End of war – a Parthian hands a Roman the legionary standard – Roman unknown (could be Tiberius, Mars Ultor, or another general)
* Woman holding a cornucorpia – could be Pax, or mother earth figure – symbol of peace and plenty
* Rome’s allies and conquered provinces
* inward facing sphinx – associated with Egypt – possible refers to defeat of Cleopatra

When was the Head of Livia made?

31BC

What is the Head of Livia made of

Egyptian Basanite

How does Livia’s head showcase realism?

\
* Lacks any strong emotional expression
* Prominent nose, small mouth, and distinctive chin – REALISM
* Realism was a prominent feature in Roman
* sculpture – focus on flaws, accurate portrayals
* Different than Greek idealism which focused on depicting perfect human forms

How is Livia presented in the Head of Livia

\
* Depicts Livia as the quintessentially
* Roman woman – duty and chastity
* Hairstyle reinforces this
* Nodus – hairstyle; roll of hair on the top of the head with a small bun at the nape of the neck
* Depiction of a model matrona
* Matrona – a married Roman woman

What was Livia to Augustus?

\
* Livia thus was not a partner in power but a contributor to the household of her husband


* This is how Roman women wielded power – not as independent political figures


* In this sense, however, particularly with later emperors, the choice of the right wife was very important

What is this and when was it made and what was its significance? \[outside source\]

Clipius Virtuis

**Date:** 27BC

**Significance:**

* Awarded to Octavian as part of the First Settlement
* Displayed in the Senate House and around the Empire
* Copies displayed around the empire 
* Pater patriae as it shows the ideal roman beliefs - clementia, justice, piety, virtue 
* Reference to imperator

What is this and when was it made and what was its significance? \[outside source\]

Meroe Head of Augustus

**Date:** 27-25BC

**Located:** Sudan (but believed to have been originally in Egypt)

**Style:** Similar to Prima Porta

**Significance**:  Evidence Augustus also depicted himself in Classical style outside Rome

* Evidence Augustus presented a mixed image in Egypt, perhaps to cater to native Egyptians and Roman citizens living in Egypt

What is this and when was it made and what was its significance? \[outside source\]

Sardonyx Cameo Portraits of Augustus the God

**Date:** 41-54AD

**Significance:** Symbol of divine authority 

* Although there were similar representations of Augustus after his death to his reign – other shifts did occur
* During his lifetime, he did not depict himself as a god – associated with gods, descended from gods but not as a god only a morta

What is in the Res Gestae

* Augustus’ treatment of Sextus Pompeius is less straightforward as he mentions him by name in refer- ence to the year of his consulship
* When referencing to the military campaign against him he refers to Sextus Pompeius and his followers simply as ‘pirates’
* Augustus’ accounts of his civil wars are brief and never acknowledge that the wars were in fact a civil war however his foreign campaigns he stresses the benefits that these campaigns brought to the Roman people
* When referencing to Tiberius’ diplomatic mission to Parthia he does not go so far as to claim that it had been a military victory, but his choice of words when referring to the negotiations does imply the threat or use of force
* Bearing in mind the fact that many Romans wanted the Parthians to be punished it seems as though Augustus wanted this episode to be remembered as a humiliating defeat for the Parthians
* Despite the fact that much of the Res Gestae is concerned with Augustus’ military victories overall it does not give the impression that Augustus’ lifetime was dominated by war and conflict
* He makes reference to the symbolic closure of Janus’ temple in Rome to emphasise the theme of peace:
* *“It was the wish of our ancestors that Janus Quirinus should be closed when there was peace on both land and sea, throughout the whole of the empire of the Roman people. Before my birth, it had been closed twice in all recorded memory, from the foundation of the city: while I was first citizen, the senate voted three times that it should be closed.“*
* Augustus’ generosity is heavily stressed, in terms of gifts made to the Roman people, buildings he commissioned and games subsided:
* *“Four times I helped the treasury with my own money, so that I transferred to those who ran the treasury one hundred and fifty million sesterces.”*
* *“I rebuilt the Capitol and the Theatre of Pompey, both works at great expense without inscribing my name on either of them.”*
* *“Three times in my own name, I gave gladiatorial shows and five times in the name of my sons and grandsons; about ten thousand men fought in these shows.”*
* Throughout the Res Gestae Augustus is careful to make frequent reference to the Senate and magis- trates
* Reinforced his image as a champion of the Republic who held offices only at the request of the Senate
* At one point he states outright that all his powers were based on the precedents generation’s ances- tors:
* *“I received no magistrates that were not in keeping with the customs of our ancestors. What the senate wished me to do, I carried out throughout tribunician power. Five times I myself asked for, and accepted from the senate a colleague in that power.”*
* The Res Gestae ends with an explanation of two of his most important titles: Augustus and Pater Patriae.
* The importance of these titles is emphasised by this prominent positioning, and by the extended of how these titled were conferred upon him, and how they were displayed to the public:
* *“For my service, by senatorial decree, I was named Augustus, and the doors of my house were publicly clothed in laurel, and a civic crown were fixed over my door and a golden shield was put in the Curia Julia.”*
* *“In my thirteenth consulship, the senate and the equestrian order and the whole people of Rome gave me the title of pater patriae and this was inscribed in the entrance hall of my house and in the Curia Julia and in the Forum of Augustus”*

When was The Lives of Augustus, Suetonius written and give inclusions of whats in it (21, 7, 20) ?

121AD

* discusses his building program, military achievements and political career
* BUT created rumours of Augustus’ political prostitution and strained relationship with his daughter Julia who was acting immoral and was banished because of her promiscuity
* 20: triple triumph in 29BC, Dalmatian + Egypt + Actium
* 7: got the name of Augustus in 27BC and it now has religious connotations - First Constitutional Agreement
* 21: benefits of his foreign campaigns and how he expanded the empire