Test 2 PSYC 1107

Memory (24), Language/Thinking (32), Intelligence (15), Emotion/Motivation (26), Social Psych (41)

Three Memory Storage Systems

1. Sensory Memory: Briefly holds sensory information; very short duration.

2. Short-term Memory (STM): Holds limited information for a short time; can retain items for about 15-30 seconds.

3. Long-term Memory (LTM): Can store a vast amount of information for extended periods, potentially indefinitely.

Rehearsal and Memory Formation Sequence

• Sensory memory captures initial data (e.g. phone numbers).

• Through rehearsal (practice), information can move to STM.

• Further rehearsal leads to encoding in LTM.

• Retrieval involves accessing LTM, transferring it back to STM for use.

Explicit (Declarative) Memory

• Conscious recollection of information.

• Examples include factual knowledge, like Piaget's Stages of Development and the Big 5 personality factors.

Forms of Explicit (Declarative) Memory

1. Recall: Retrieving information without cues (e.g. essay questions).

2. Recognition: Identifying previously learned information (e.g. multiple-choice questions).

Implicit (Procedural) Memory

• Unconscious memory affecting behaviors (e.g. riding a bike).

• Developed through classical conditioning (e.g. positive responses to brands).

Mechanisms of Memory

• Encoding: Converting experiences into mental representations.

• Storage: Retaining mental representations over time.

• Retrieval: Accessing retained representations for use.

Encoding Types

1. Visual Encoding: Creating mental images.

2. Phonological Encoding: Sounds and verbal input.

3. Motor Encoding: Physical movements and sequences.

4. Semantic Encoding: Assigning meaning and value (e.g. emotional connections).

Low-Level Encoding

• Simple repetition to retain information.

  • Memory List-Learning Effects:

  • Primacy Effect: Better recall for early items in lists.

  • Recency Effect: Better recall for later items in lists.

Medium-Level Encoding

• Chunking: Grouping information into larger, meaningful units.

• Mnemonics: Techniques like the Method of Loci and acronyms which enhance recall.

Higher Level Encoding

• Making deep connections between new and existing memories.

• Shallower: Encode new info based on its surface characteristics.

• Deeper: Encode new info via meaningful connection.

Types of Elaboration

• Imagery: TED talk.

• Organization: Chunking.

• Distinctiveness: Must stand out.

• Self-reference: We care and have a deep connection with self-related info.

Sensory Memory Register

Stores brief sensory impressions.

Types of Sensory Memory Register

• Iconic Memory: Visual impressions lasting up to 1/4 second.

• Echoic Memory: Auditory impressions lasting up to 2 seconds.

• Haptic Memory: Physical sensations lasting approximately 2 seconds.

• Olfactory and Gustatory Memory: Associated with smell and taste perception.

STM Characteristics

• Capacity: 7 +/- 2 items (e.g. phone numbers).

• Duration: 15-30 seconds.

Working Memory (WM)

• Handles active processing of information (comprehension, problem-solving).

• Uses sub-components of the memory system to maintain and manipulate information.

Baddeley's Working Memory Model

1. Central Executive: Acts as the "control center," directing attention to relevant tasks and coordinating the three slave systems.

2. Phonological Loop: Handles auditory and verbal information; consists of the "phonological store" (inner ear) and "articulatory rehearsal" (inner voice).

3. Visuospatial Sketchpad: Manages visual and spatial information, such as mental imagery or the layout of a room.

4. Episodic Buffer: A temporary store that integrates information from the other components and long-term memory into single "episodes."

LTM Characteristics

• Not precise recordings; often reconstructive in nature.

• Strength and stability depend on repeated activations (both external experiences and internal recollections).

Associative Network

• Memory is connected through perceptual, semantic, and emotional associations.

Eyewitness Testimony issues

• Language use influences memory recall accuracy.

• Memory manipulations show how easily memories can be altered or replaced.

Biological Basis of Memory

• Memory formation involves chemical and structural changes at the neuron level.

  • Long-term potentiation (LTP): Strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity.

  • Hippocampus: crucial for converting STM into LTM.

Patient H.M.

• Patient H.M. - Henry Gustav Molaison (1926-2008)
• Intractable epilepsy
• Brain surgery at 27 yr – Bilateral hippocampi removal
• Permanent Amnesia
• Major Insights into Memory Formation

Memory Loss

• Retrograde Amnesia - Cannot Recall or Recognize Past memories (Previous)

• Anterograde Amnesia - Cannot form New memories (Forward)

The Seven Sins of Memory (by Schacter 2002)

• Errors of Omission:

  1. Transience: Memory degradation over time.

  2. Absent-mindedness: Encoding failure due to lack of attention.

  3. Blocking: Inability to access memories due to insufficient cues.

• Errors of Commission:

  4. Misattribution: Incorrectly attributing the source of a memory.

  5. Suggestibility: Memory distortion through external influences.

  6. Bias: Pre-existing knowledge distorting new memories.

  7. Persistence: Unwanted recollections triggered by emotional experiences.

Forgetting Models

• Decay: Information fades if not accessed.

• Replacement: New memories overwrite old ones due to limited storage.

• Interference: Similar information confuses retrieval.

• Cue-dependent forgetting: Memory retrieval fails due to lack of retrieval cues.

Communication

• Ability to communicate with people within one's culture; can involve collaboration and manipulation (e.g., deception).

System of Language

• Composed of symbols (sounds or gestures), which are arranged to form structured utterances that convey meaning.

  • Phonemes: the smallest units of sound

  • Morphemes: the smallest units of meaning

  • Lexicon: the complete set of words and their meanings

  • Syntax: the rules that govern the structure of sentences

  • Semantics: the literal meaning

  • Pragmatics: the social context and style

Language Deprivation

• Cases like "Genie" (13 years old) show that lack of early communication prevents proper grammar acquisition.

Environmental Support

• Basic exposure to language is necessary for language development.

  • Infants and children learn by observing and imitating adult language.

Challenges with Exposure & Reinforcement

• Infants and toddlers learn words too quickly for simple reinforcement or imitation

• Adults often inconsistently correct children’s syntax; but they still learn to speak correctly

• Children are capable of creating novel word patterns not previously heard, illustrating a concept called Generativity.

Noam Chomsky

• Proposed that humans are biologically pre-wired to learn language at a specific time and in specific ways.

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

• Innate biological mechanism including general grammatical rules, suggesting a theory of Universal Grammar.

Sensitive (Not Critical) Periods

• Younger → Easier & more
  rapid language learning

Emergentist Language Explanation

• Biological characteristics →

  • Allows the development of language

  • Imposes Developmental constraints (timing)

• Environmental characteristics →

  • Language specialization (specific language
    learned)

  • Individual difference among same language
    people

Broca’s Area

• Located in the frontal lobe; responsible for speech production. Damage results in Broca’s Aphasia (difficulty with articulation and complex syntax).

Wernicke’s Area

• Located in the temporal lobe; involved in organizing speech. Damage results in Wernicke’s Aphasia (fluent but nonsensical speech and impaired comprehension).

Central Linguistic Processes

• Located within a left-brain network, including perisylvian regions, the middle temporal gyrus, and the ventral temporo-occipital regions.

Paul Broca’s Area (1861)

• Functions related to:

  • Verbal Articulation: Impairments affect speech production.

  • Spoken Expression: Issues arise in forming words and sentences.

  • Spoken Comprehension: Simple sentences can be understood, but complex sentences pose problems.

  • Reading: Generally good comprehension.

  • Written Expression: Uncertain effects.

  • Motor Functions: Handwriting and typing are usually not affected.

Carl Wernicke’s Aphasia (1874)

• Damage to Wernicke’s area leads to:

  • Speech Organization Deficits: Speech is fluent with well-structured phrases; however, it often lacks meaning (rambling).

  • Comprehension Deficits: Patients typically show difficulties in understanding spoken language and may be unaware of nonsensical speech they produce.

Bilingualism

• Correlated with higher cognitive flexibility, improved functioning, and enhanced analytic skills.

Dr. Patricia Kuhl’s Findings

• Neuroplasticity enables infants to learn languages, but the ease of learning gradually declines.

  • Engagement and interaction with real people fosters communication through motivation.

Interventions for Young Babies

• Bilingual Training: Programs designed for infants to enhance their language skills,

• 32 weeks, 1 hour per day, showing significant gains compared to conventional bilingual teaching methods.

• Music in Social Environment: Participation in musical activities enhances pattern prediction relating to language development.

• Parent Coaching: Encourages talking to infants using a rich linguistic style (known as "Parentese" or "Motherese").

Research by Dr. Catherine Hobaiter

• Focused on the communicative gestures of chimpanzees, identifying a lexicon of gestures that convey specific messages.

Cognition

• The process that occurs when information is being processed, organized, stored, communicated, or evaluated. It encompasses:

  • Associated with processing speed, memory capacity, attention, learning, and strategy formation.

Meta-cognition

• Awareness of one’s own cognitive processes.

Reasoning / Problem Solving

• Reasoning: Involves drawing conclusions or inferences based on observations, facts, or assumptions.

• Problem Solving: A specific strategy aimed at achieving a goal when the goal is not immediately accessible.

Formal Algorithmic Reasoning

• A structured problem-solving method guaranteed to yield a solution through systematic approaches.

  • Deductive Reasoning: Drawing specific implications from general premises (e.g., "Laura missed work. At work there was a party. Therefore, Laura missed the party.").

  • Mathematics Rules: Following established order of operations (e.g., PEMDAS).

Informal Reasoning

• Diverse problem-solving methods that are less systematic than formal approaches, often yielding no single correct solution.

Common Heuristics

• Rule-of-Thumb Heuristic: An approach that generally works for specific types of problems.

• Subgoal Analysis Heuristic: Breaking complex tasks into manageable subtasks (e.g., writing a term paper involves multiple steps).

• Other Heuristics:

  • Availability Heuristic: Making decisions based on readily available information.

  • Representative Heuristic: Judging similarity to prototypical examples (e.g., identifying whether a bird is similar to a typical bird).

Thin Slicing

• Forming significant judgments based on brief observations, largely influenced by automatic thoughts.

Automaticity

• Unconscious, rapid responses that can be innate or learned through exposure or conditioning.

Priming

• Utilization of subtle cues triggering automatic responses and behaviors (e.g., imitating others’ communication style).

Chameleon Effect

• Interpersonal Mimicry → imitate

Thinking Limitations

• Affective Bias: Decisions influenced by feelings and moods that can overshadow objective reasoning.

• Mental Set: Resistance to viewing problems from new perspectives, limiting problem-solving efficacy.

• Functional Fixedness: Restriction in viewing an object's functions, hindering creative solutions to problems.

Confirmation Bias

• The act of seeking or interpreting information that affirms one's pre-existing beliefs, leading to skewed interpretations.

Interpretation Limitations

• Hindsight Bias: The tendency to believe one knew the outcome of an event after it occurs, which leads to psychological comfort but can impede learning from mistakes.

• Cognitive Dissonance: Discomfort arising from conflicting beliefs and actions, often resolved through adjustment of beliefs or perceptions.

Dual Process Model

• Distinction between two types of decision-making systems:

  • System 1: Fast, automatic responses based on prior experiences (may be biased).

  • System 2: Slower, more deliberate responses requiring focused effort and energy.

Analytic Intelligence

• Academic problem solving

• Reading / Comprehension

• Analogies and Puzzles

• Systematic Math solutions

7 Primary Intelligences

   1. Word fluency
    2. Verbal Comprehension
    3. Numeric Abilities
    4. Spatial Visualization
    5. Memory
    6. Perceptual Speed
    7. Reasoning

g factor (general intelligence)

• A general intellectual ability that underlies all specific mental abilities, talents, and acquired knowledge.

Fluid Intelligence (gf)

• Refers to flexible information-processing capabilities, reasoning, and memory, shown by the ability to adapt to new problems

Crystallized Intelligence (gc)

• Represents the accumulation of knowledge, skills, and strategies that have been learned through experience.

Carroll's Three-Stratum Model

• Describes intelligence in a structural hierarchy.

  • Level III: General intelligence, synonymous with g.

  • Level II: Broad forms of information processing with eight specialized types.

  • Level I: Very specific forms of information processing aimed at particular tasks and problem-solving functions.

Howard Gardner's Theory

• Defines eight intelligences that correspond to different areas of human ability and expertise.

  • Each intelligence is capable of solving problems or creating products that are valued in various cultural contexts.

Gardner's Eight Intelligences

• Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence: Good at using words and language.

• Logical-Mathematical Intelligence: Strong analytical capabilities.

• Musical-Rhythmic Intelligence: Abilities related to music, rhythm, and sound.

• Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: Control over body movements; physical coordination.

• Spatial Intelligence: Ability to visualize and manipulate objects.

• Interpersonal Intelligence: Understanding and interacting with others.

• Intrapersonal Intelligence: Self-awareness and understanding one’s own motivations and feelings.

• Naturalistic Intelligence: Ability to recognize, categorize, and draw upon certain features of the environment.

WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale) Subscales

• Verbal Tests:

  • Information (world knowledge).

  • Comprehension/Vocabulary (words and metaphors).

  • Letter-Number Sequencing/Digit Span (recall of sequences).

  • Arithmetic (mental calculations).

  • Similarities (pattern recognition).

• Performance Tests:

  • Picture Completion (identifying missing elements).

  • Picture Arrangement (ordering pictures).

  • Block Design (using blocks to create patterns).

  • Object Assembly (putting together pieces).

  • Digit Symbol (transcribing symbols to numbers).

The Flynn Effect on Intelligence

• A gradual increase in measured IQ scores across the decades.

Intelligence Testing Biases

• Familiarity with test formats.

• Varied access to knowledge and skill development.

• Attitudes and expectations regarding performance.

• Negative motivations can diminish IQ performance (e.g., stereotype threat).

To Measure or Not To Measure IQ

• Pros:

  • Criterion validity; predictive of success in various life endeavors.

  • Helps identify those who need special education help.

• Cons:

  • Potential bias against specific groups.

  • Risk of misclassification affecting opportunities.

Predictors of Success

• Self-Discipline: The ability to focus and exert self-control.

• Motivation: The drive to achieve, requiring effort.

• Environmental Supports: Access to resources and opportunities.

• Deliberate Practice: Structured practice aimed at improvement and not merely repetition.

Deliberate Practice

• A specific training method designed to enhance performance.

K. Anders Ericsson's Research

• Highlights the importance of deliberate practice in achieving expertise in various domains, with a focus on sustained effort and reflective improvement.

Dr. Paul Ekman’s 6

• Joy

• Sadness

• Anger

• Fear

• Disgust

• Surprise

2-Dimensional Model of Emotions

• Framework to understand emotions in relation to arousal and valence:

  • Arousal Axis: High vs. Low

  • Valence Axis: Positive vs. Negative

Dr. Robert Plutchik’s Emotional Model

• Ekman’s 6 plus Trust and Anticipation

• Emotions categorized in opposite pairs:

• Joy vs. Sadness

• Fear vs. Anger

• Anticipation vs. Surprise

• Disgust vs. Trust

• 24 Basic Emotion Categories: Expanded emotional range achieved through different combinations.

Levels of Arousal and Emotional States

• Low Arousal: Serenity, Pensiveness, Annoyance

• Moderate Arousal: Joy/Sadness, Anger

• High Arousal: Ecstasy, Grief, Rage

Software-Based Emotion Detection

• Explores advances in technology for emotion detection:

  • Facial analysis

  • Vocal evaluations

  • Postural assessments

  • Applications in lie detection and various contexts.

Measuring & Conceptualizing Emotions

• Direct Methods: Subjective self-reports (e.g., asking individuals how they feel).

• Indirect Methods: Include nonverbal cues and physiological indicators (e.g., facial expressions, vocal sounds, posture).

Emotional Functions

• Core Functions of Emotion:

  • Hard-wired features that appear early in life, which promote survival:

  • Prepare for action (approach vs. avoid strategies).

  • Act as social signals for communication (friend or foe).

• Long-Term Effects:

  • Positive outcomes: Aid in learning and memory retention.

  • Negative implications: Associated with PTSD, anxiety disorders, and depression.

Emotional Contagion

• Emotional intensity can increase when shared, leading to heightened experiences compared to when alone.

Cannon-Bard Theory

• Immediate experience of emotion and physical arousal occurs simultaneously:

• Stimulus → Emotion → Arousal

James-Lange Theory

• Emotion results from physiological reactions:

• Stimulus → Arousal → Emotion

Issues with James-Lange's Theory

• Instances of arousal without emotional experience.

• Difficulty in categorizing emotional responses based solely on arousal levels.

• Evidence through spinal-cord injured patients.

Schachter & Singer: 2-Factor Theory of Emotion

• Explanation through experimental studies examining:

  • Independent Variables:

  • Arousal manipulation (epinephrine vs. placebo).

  • Context framing (funny vs. frustrating).

  • Dependent Variables:

  • Emotional responses noted (e.g., elation, frustration).

  • Reference to a detailed YouTube demonstration.

Early Schachter & Singer Study (1962) Design

• Dependent Variable: Feelings reported by participants.

• Results:

  • Contextual cues influenced emotional experiences.

  • Conclusions: Both situational appraisal and arousal are critical in shaping emotional outcomes.

Emotions & Cognitions: Interaction

• Impact of Cognition on Emotion: Explanatory perspectives can change emotional responses.

• Emotional States on Cognition:

  • Positive emotions encourage open-mindedness and creative thinking

  • Negative emotions might restrict thinking and increase attention to detail.

Emotions & Cognitions: Connections

• Developmental Perspective:

  • Cognitive and emotional skills grow increasingly complex with age.

• Therapeutic Implications:

  • Cognitive Therapy: Changes in perspectives lead to emotional shifts.

  • Emotion-Focused Therapy emphasizes acceptance of emotions to alter interpretations.

Functions of Motivation

• Biological needs (survival & reproduction).

• Inferring private states from public behaviors.

• Assigning responsibility for actions.

• Maintaining perseverance despite adversity.

Conceptual Models of Motivation

1. Drives vs. Incentives

2. Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation

3. Expectancy x Value Theory

4. Desire resulting in growth and positive change.

Clark Hull's 1930’s Model

• Distinction between internal drives (push) and external incentives (pull).

• Homeostatic equilibrium vs. disequilibrium examples (e.g., hunger).

• Automatic vs. learned responses to motivational drives.

Drug Addiction Context

• Combination of drives and incentives influences addictive behaviors:

  • Biological deficits due to withdrawal compel actions, while environmental stimuli may lure individuals.

Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation

• Extrinsic Motivation: Driven by external rewards or punishments.

• Intrinsic Motivation: Engagement in activities due to their inherent enjoyment or rewarding nature.

Overjustification Effect Study

• Experiment comparing puzzle-solving behaviors with varying reward structures

Expectancy x Value Theory

1. Expectancy (belief that behavior will lead to desired outcomes).

2. Value placed on those outcomes (subjective importance to the person).

• Provides foundational understanding for motivational decision-making.

Sub-Types of Motivation

• Promotion/Approach Motives: Goals framed on achieving desirable outcomes.

• Prevention/Avoidance Motives: Goals framed to evade unpleasant experiences.

Types of Success

• Mastery: Personal defined improvements.

• Performance: Relative success compared to others.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

• Challenges traditional views on the necessity of lower-level needs for higher-level motivation.

Self-Determination Theory (SDT)

• Highlights the importance of intrinsic motivation guided by autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

• Defines core needs for motivation:

  1. Autonomy: Acting on personal volition.

  2. Competence: Achieving challenging goals.

  3. Relatedness: Feeling connected to others during goal pursuit.

Social Psychology

• Study of how individuals think about the social world, how others influence their behavior, and how they relate to others.

Key Themes in Social Psychology

• In-Groups, Stereotypes, Prejudice, Discrimination

• Frogs & Confidence

• Affiliation, Attraction & Love

• Helpful & Unhelpful Social Behaviour

• Conformity and Obedience

• Social Roles

Social Identity

• Definition: A part of a person’s self-concept based on their identification with a particular group, such as a nation, religion, political group, or occupation.

• Concept: An Earthling Identity is recommended to foster all-inclusive in-group status.