Asian Traditions: Buddhism

Origins of Buddhism: The Myth of Buddha

• Gautama Shakyamuni, or “Buddha” (enlightened one)

  • born either 566 or 563 BCE, son of a member of kshatriya caste

  • married to Yashodara, had son Rahula

  • He discovered old age, disease, and death - led him to meditate

  • became an ascetic for 6 years

  • then he returned home and continued meditating, vowing not to rise until he achieved enlightenment

    • while meditating, he relived his former lives

    • achieved what he had been seeking: “When birth is destroyed , old age and death case; when ‘becoming’ is destroyed, then birth ceases.”

  • this breakthrough was his “awakening” - he was now Buddha. He began preaching at Deer Park in his 40s

Origins of Buddhism: Historical Buddha

• Gangetic Plain, Bihar, Lumbini (Nepal)

• 6th-5th centuries BCE

  • meaning there was also: the emergence of private property, spread of trade & commerce, flourishing of vaishya (merchant) caste

• Teachings opposed Brahmanism, Vedas, sacrificial rituals, and the caste system

  • so the popular audience was the vaishya and shudra (bottom 2 castes) 

Four Noble Truths

1. All life is sorrowful and full of suffering

2. Sorrow and suffering are caused by human desires

3. Sorrow and suffering will cease if one stops desiring

4. Sorrow and suffering will cease if one follows the Eightfold Path

Eightfold Path

• right speech, right action, right livelihood (code of conduct)

• meditation

  • right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration

  • right understanding, right thought (wisdom/insight)

Change, Flux, Impermanence

• no static, permanent and enduring reality

• “reality” is “illusion”

Transmigration

• illusion of permanence → karma (which determines how ur reborn in ur next life)  → rebirth

• leads to endless cycle of rebirth

• kalpa (equal to 432,000,000 years)

Nirvana

• literally, nibana “snuffing out”

• enabled by true knowledge (of the 4 Buddhist Teachings above)

• knowledge of the Absolute (S. tathata)

bhikkus

• “beggars“

First Council, 480 BCE

Second Council, 346 BCE

Doctrinal agreement

1. Two Realities (metaphysics)

   1. TRUE REALITY

   2. false reality

2. Move from “false reality” to “TRUE REALITY”

Doctrinal disagreement

1. goal of the journey

2. means to be used

3. ease or difficulty of the journey

(all collectively known as “spiritual practice”

Theravada (Southern Schools) 300s BCE (Hinayana)

1. goal: arhant, arhat (perfect person)

2. method: moral discipline, concentration, wisdom

3. journey: self-effort, many lifetimes, males only

(therefore we can conclude: not good for females)

Mahayana 346 BCE

1. goal: universal salvation

2. method: faith - chanting, worship, visualization

3. journey: you can receive others’ help e.g. bodhisattva (bodhi “enlightened” + sattva “being”)

(therefore we can conclude: not elitist, democratic, open to everyone, helps you achieve enlightenment)

discourse

a conceptual language that emerges in a specific place and at one point in time. it consists of words, signs, and symbols that those who subscribe to the discourse use in their writings, conversations, and productions.

Buddhist discourse elements

• Two Realities (metaphysical)

  • TRUE REALITY, false reality

• Move from “false reality” to “TRUE REALITY” (spiritual practice)

Buddhist political discourse

• articulated by Ashoka (Indian ruler, r. 268-232 BCE)

• 260 BCE: Ashoka completed the Mauryan conquest w/ Kalinga campaign; he became a Buddhist (out of remorse?)

• He:

  • exhorted the population to be Buddhist

  • performed good works (charity, planting medicinal trees)

  • actively propagated Buddhism - launched a campaign to establish Buddhist dharma

  • organized preaching tours

  • had stupas built (abt 84,000)

    • stupa: a structure containing relics, e.g. parts of Buddha’s body

    • stupa —> becomes pagoda

  • created a Buddhist political discourse

Buddhism in China: First Stage (0-311 CE)

• Origins: Five Theories

  • Ashoka sent Buddhists to China after 260 BCE

  • Buddhist monk visited state of Zhao in 317 BCE

  • Buddhism introduced to Qin-Han Dynasties, 221 BCE-200 CE

  • Emperor Ming (r. 58-75) dreamt that a golden deity flew about his palace

    • golden deity was named “Buddha”

  • Buddhism brought to China in 97 CE

    • merchants & other travelers, along the Silk Road, by sea

• Buddhist communities set up during latter half of Han (100-220) in three places (Luoyang, Pengcheng, Chienkang)

  • most residents of these communities weren’t Chinese, but Central or South Asian

• Kumarajiva (343/344-413)

Six Chinese Criticisms of Buddhism

1. It’s a foreign religion

2. It undermines the family (nuns/monks don’t marry/reproduce)

3. Why isn’t Buddhism mentioned in the Chinese classics?

4. Why do they believe in a “soul”?

5. Why don’t they have a conception of immortality?

6. Why don’t they bow before kings?

Responses to Chinese Criticisms of Buddhism

1. Translation (response to “It’s a foreign religion”)

   1. first converts to Buddhism were aristocrats/those who were literate

2. Loss of northern China to Xiongnu in 311 led to more conversions; overran capital of Jin Dynasty, set it on fire, executed emperor. Western Jin ruling family fled south and established Eastern Jin.

Buddhism in China: Second Stage (311-589 CE)

• Buddhism “took off”

  • 2,846 temples built by 550 CE

  • # of monks also increased dramatically

  • Why:

    • it was the right religion for this time as dynasties rose and fell and people needed something to turn to

    • it offered a salve - explained misery, offered an escape

    • offered alternative to Confucianism, complemented Daoism

    • universalistic and open to all

Buddhism in China: Third Stage (589-907 CE)

• Founder of Sui Dynasty, Yangjian (Emperor Wen), made Buddhism the state ideology (response to criticism #6)

  • repaired damage done to Buddhist temples/sutras in 570s

  • 585: he took Buddhist lay vows

  • called himself “Bodhisattva Son of Heaven”

  • 594: began referring to himself as “Emperor, Disciple of Buddha”

  • 601-604: he sent monks w/ relics in all directions

• Buddhism became part of socio-economic fabric of the Sui & Tang (617-906) (response to criticism #2)

  • temples served key economic functions: operated water-powered mills, provided banking functions, ran oil presses

  • temples offered “temple lands”

    • parcels of land allotted to temples

    • bought

    • grants from govt.

    • gifts from believers

  • well-to-do families developed ties to temples in 2 ways:

    • donations: gained tax break

    • built temples on own lands: tax purposes (response to criticism #2)

Buddhism in China: Fourth Stage (840-1279 CE)

• Buddhism met a bad end

• Buddhists were persecuted by Daoist-influenced emperors — Emperor Wu-tsung (r. 814-846)

• 846: Wu-tsung died, saving Buddhism

• Buddhism suffered in Sùng/Song (960-1279)

  • govt. established Bureau of National Sacrifice, which sold certificates identifying monks

    • tax purposes

Buddhist Artistic Discourse

• “Buddhist art” is paradoxical

• in earliest examples of Buddhist art, “Buddha” doesn’t appear bcuz he was no longer part of this world so it felt inappropriate

• he was depicted symbolically

  • royal umbrella = Buddha’s presence

  • riderless horse = Buddha’s leaving the palace

  • bodhi tree = Buddha’s enlightenment

  • wheel = Buddha’s first sermon

  • footprints = Buddha as universal ruler

  • lotus = Buddha’s enlightenment

• stupa itself was a symbol - signifying his release from this world & attainment of nirvana

200 CE: images of Buddha appeared

• first, due to influence of Roman sculpture entered north/south India

• second, impact of Mahayana sects & need for images of Buddha as objects of worship

• Buddhist sculpture in NW India (Gandhara) at high point ca. 200-400 CE

  • mudra - “seal, mark, gesture” - made w/ fingers

    • bhutadamara mudra - warding off evil

    • varada mudra - fear not

  • Yogic sitting position - suggests meditation/calm

  • webbed hands/feet symbolize the cosmos

  • elongated ear lobes - he hears all sound

  • knob on Buddha’s head - usnisa

  • janacaksu - Buddha’s third eye - symbolizes enlightenment

Popchusa Temple

• established 553 by Buddhist monk Uisin, & represented the Dharmalakshana sect

• Pagoda (National Treasure no. 55)

• Main Hall - rebuilt several times since 1500s

• Monks’ Quarters

Buddhism in Korea: Origins

• 370: Chinese monk Shun Tao from former Jin brought Buddhism to Koguryo

• 372: Second Chinese monk, A Tao, arrived

• 384: South Asian monk Malananda from E. Jin came to Paekche

• early 400s: A Tao brought Buddhism to Silla; faced opposition

• early 500s: monk Won Pyo reintroduced it to Silla

  • King Pophung (r. 514-540) embraced it

    • made it his state’s ideology

    • sent monks to China to study it

    • had temples and pagodas built

    • he’s like Ashoka

Why did King Pophung embrace Buddhism?

• it affirmed power of rulers

• it provided ceremonies to be used by the state

• it protected the state: Temple of the King Ascendant

• it can be used to exhort soldiers to fight

• Buddhist institutions used to maintain order in the state

• it’s part of the models of the state adopted during the Three Kingdoms Period

Buddhism in Korea: First Stage (370-668)

• introduced to Three Kingdoms & gained royal support

• used politically & administratively

• valued as part of Chinese model

Buddhism in Korea: Second Stage (668-918)

• Popchusa Temple: Four Artifacts

  • Rice Pot - 720 CE, 4 ft high, could feed 3000 monks

  • Stone Lantern - 720 CE, lions holding it up

  • Eight-Sided Stone Lantern - 765-780, lotus leaves designs

  • Lotus Bowl - giant stone bowl, lotus leaves designs

  • What do these artifacts reveal?

    • Buddhist activity in the Second Stage of Buddhism in Korea

• Buddhism began to serve other functions

  • it was criticized for being overly political, not religious enough

    • voiced during Confucian revival in Silla in late 600s, 700s

  • 90 Silla men passed Chinese civil service exams

    • shows that Confucianism really took root in Silla

• Changes in Buddhist philosophy

  • New Buddhist sects/doctrines introduced

  • Korean monk Hyecho visited China/India

  • Korean monk Wonchuk visited China, translated Sanskrit texts into Chinese

  • new sects (t=Theravada, m=Mahayana) ca. 668:

    • Nirvana School (t)

    • Disciplinary School (t)

    • Consciousness School (m)

    • Dharma Nature School (m)

    • Flower Garland School (m)

  • their doctrines: esoteric, appealed to aristocracy

• Buddhism became a popular region, appealed to non-aristocrats

  • Pure Land sect (Chongto-gyo)

    • Amitabha (Amit’a) Buddha

      • if one had faith in Amita, one would be born in Paradise

    • Monks took this message “to people”

      • Wonhyo, Hyegong (monk)

• Chan sect (“Son” in Korean) spread in the countryside

Buddhism in Korea: Third Stage (918-1392)

• King Taejo (r. 918-943) supported Buddhism bcuz it had helped him

  • pledged to be Buddhist

  • built temples to protect state

  • arranged Buddhist festivals

• monk examination system created

  • several different degrees awarded

• granted tax exemptions to Buddhist monasteries

  • monasteries became major landholders

  • acquired great wealth, engaged in business, raised livestock, offered relief

1. Buddhism had royal support

2. temples acquired enormous wealth

3. gained broad support (both aristocracy & commoners)

4. insinuated itself into institutional life of Koryo period

Todaiji Temple in Nara

• deer - ties to legend of Kasuga shrine, deer considered sacred/killing one is punishable

• Vairocana (Sun Buddha) - Flower Garland sect

• symbolizes state of Buddhism in Japan circa 750s when Buddhism was Nara state religion

Buddhism in Japan: First Stage (545-750)

• 545: Buddhism brought to Japan

  • King Song (of Paekche) sent Buddhist image to gain support of Yamato state against Silla

  • King Song also formed alliance w/ Silla

• 552: King Song sent more Buddhist images/texts

• 554: King Song betrayed by Silla, killed in battle

• Late 500s struggle in Japan between:

  • supporters of Buddhism

    • Soga (“immigrant lineage”)

  • opponents of Buddhism: patrons of Shinto

    • Nakatomi, Mononobe

  • Soga lost out to Nakatomi & Mononobe: conflict about power, not religion

• 600-750: Buddhism established itself in Japan

  • gained powerful patrons

    • ruling Yamato clan

      • Empress Suiko (r. 592-628)

      • Prince Shotoku, her nephew

    • 605: Emperor Wen (Sui Dynasty) sent message 

      • Prince Shotoku sent mission to Sui and had Buddhist temples built

  • Buddhism gained other powerful patrons

  • 685: Buddhism gained parity with Shinto when Emperor Tenmu fell ill

  • 710: capital moved to Nara

    • clans told to build Buddhist temples there

  • 730-740s: epidemics, plague hit Japan

    • Emperor Shomu made Buddhism the state religion

    • 737: sent Buddhist image/texts to every province

    • 741: had each province build Buddhist temple complex consisting of: temple, 7-storied pagoda, monastery, nunnery

    • 745: had work begun massive temple complex in Nara - Todaiji

    • 751: Todaiji made the central state temple

1. Buddhism gained support of powerful clans

2. Govt. encouraged spread of Buddhism

3. Buddhism put down roots because it was associated with an advanced civilization on mainland

4. Todaiji complex symbolized Japan’s new status as an advanced, Chinese-style state

Buddhism in Japan: Second Stage (750-1185)

• Mid-700s: Buddhists almost took over state

  • Ex-empress Koken had Priest Dokyo as confidant

• 764: They deposed Emperor Junnin and murdered his adviser, Fujiwara Nakamaro

  • Koken returned to throne as Empress Shotoku

• 770: When she died, Dokyo was sent into exile

• 794: Emperor Kanmu moved capital from Nagaoka to Kyoto

• 794-1185: Buddhism flourished in Kyoto and insinuated itself into aristocratic life

  • new Buddhist sects introduced from China

    • Shingon was very “Indian”

      • elaborate iconography

      • complex rituals

      • symbolic doctrines

      • made Sun Buddha central deity

    • Tendai had strong Mahayanist coloring

      • emphasis on meditation

      • Lotus Sutra was central text

      • universality of possible salvation

        • What made that possible? All had the Buddha nature (universality of Buddha Nature).

  • Buddhism developed economic base

    • late 600s-700s

    • received “temple lands” from govt.

  • Shingon and Tendai contributed rituals to ceremonial life of imperial court

    • 1st month, they presented 5-colored tassels to emperor to ward off evil spirits

    • Buddhism penetrated “public life” of court

  • Buddhism entered private life of Heian aristocracy

    • provided “maps of consciousness”

    • karma offered explanations

    • Buddhist priests served as exorcists

    • death became a Buddhist affair

ritual structure of aristocratic death

priests + DYING PERSON + priests

chanting chanting

physiology of dying

1. dying person drifts in/out of consciousness, as priests chant

2. a different buzzing heard in distance

3. buzzing approaches dying person

4. dying person moves away, toward a tunnel, toward bright light

5. dying person meets deceased loved ones

Buddhism in Japan: Third Stage (1185-1600)

• 1100s-1400s: a new Buddhist establishment emerged in Japan

  • advent of military rule in 1185

  • shogun ruled country

  • Zen sect reintroduced and became popular

    • Zen priests advised the shogun

      • Eisai, Muso Soseki

“Descent of Amida Across the Mountains” (early 1200s)