THE BEST AP PSYCHOLOGY CRAM CARDS

Structuralism

Structuralism

Approach using introspection to examine mental structures

Functionalism

Focuses on analyzing the purpose of behavior

Evolutionary

Emphasizes genes in behavior

Humanistic

Involves free will, choice, and actualization

Biological

Concerned with the brain and neurotransmitters

Cognitive

Focuses on perceptions and thoughts

Behavioral

Involves learned behaviors and reinforcement

Psychoanalytic/dynamic

Considers the unconscious and childhood

Sociocultural

Examines the influence of society on behavior

Biopsychosocial

Combination of various psychological approaches

Experiment

Research method controlling variables for cause and effect

Independent Variable

Manipulated factor in an experiment

Experimental Group

Receives the treatment in an experiment

Control Group

Group used for comparison in an experiment

Placebo Effect

Behaviors due to receiving a placebo

Double-Blind

Experiment where neither participant nor experimenter knows conditions

Dependent Variable

Measured variable dependent on the independent variable

Operational Definition

Clear definition of variables for replication

Confound

Error or flaw in a study

Random Assignment

Assigning participants randomly to groups

Random Sample

Method for choosing participants to minimize bias

Validity

Accuracy of results

Reliability

Consistency of results

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in natural settings

Correlation

Identifying relationships between variables

Positive Correlation

Variables vary in the same direction

Negative Correlation

Variables vary in opposite directions

Case Study

Detailed study of an individual

Descriptive Stats

Statistical analysis describing data shape

Inferential Statistics

Establishes significance of results

Ethical Guidelines (APA)

Principles like confidentiality and informed consent

Neuron

Basic cell of the nervous system

Dendrites

Receive incoming signals in a neuron

Soma

Cell body containing the nucleus

Axon

Part of the neuron where action potential travels

Myelin Sheath

Speeds up signal transmission in neurons

Terminals

Release neurotransmitters in a neuron

Synapse

Gap between neurons

Action Potential

Electrical charge down the axon

All or None Law

Stimulus triggers action potential

Refractory Period

Resting period for a neuron

Sensory Neurons

Receive signals

Afferent Neurons

Accept signals

Motor Neurons

Send signals

Efferent Neurons

Signal exits

Central Nervous System

Brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System

Rest of the nervous system

Somatic NS

Controls voluntary movements

Autonomic NS

Involuntary functions

Sympathetic NS

Arouses the body for fight/flight

Parasympathetic NS

Establishes homeostasis after arousal

Neurotransmitters (NTs)

Chemicals transmitting signals between neurons

GABA

Major inhibitory neurotransmitter

Glutamate

Major excitatory neurotransmitter

Dopamine

Involved in reward and movement

Serotonin

Regulates moods and emotions

Acetylcholine (ACH)

Important for memory

Epinephrine & Norepinephrine

Arousal in the sympathetic NS

Endorphins

Control pain and induce happiness

Oxytocin

Influences love and bonding

Agonist

Mimics a neurotransmitter

Antagonist

Blocks a neurotransmitter

Reuptake

Reabsorption of neurotransmitters

Areas of the Brain

Different regions and functions in the brain

Hindbrain

Oldest part of the brain

Cerebellum

Controls movement

Medulla

Regulates vital organs

Pons

Involved in sleep and arousal

Midbrain

Contains the reticular formation for attention

Forebrain

Higher thought processes

Limbic System

Emotions and memory

Amygdala

Involved in emotions and fear

Hippocampus

Important for memory

Thalamus

Relay center for sensory information

Hypothalamus

Regulates reward and eating behaviors

Broca’s Area

Involved in speech production

Wernicke’s Area

Involved in speech comprehension

Cerebral Cortex

Outer layer for higher-order thinking

Occipital Lobe:

vision

Activation Synthesis

Brain produces random bursts of energy, stimulating lodged memories in dreams which start randomly and develop meaning.

Hypnosis

Can reduce pain, help relaxation; Cannot give superhuman strength, induce regression, or make one do things against their will.

Psychoactive Drugs

Trigger dopamine release in the brain; Depressants decrease sympathetic NS activation and are highly addictive (e.g., alcohol, barbiturates); Stimulants increase sympathetic NS activation and are highly addictive (e.g., amphetamines, cocaine); Hallucinogens cause hallucinations and are not very addictive (e.g., LSD, marijuana).

Classical Conditioning

Involves Pavlov's concepts like Unconditioned Stimulus (US), Unconditioned Response (UR), Neutral Stimulus (NS), Conditioned Stimulus (CS), and Conditioned Response (CR); includes principles like Contiguity, Acquisition, Extinction, Spontaneous Recovery, Generalization, and Discrimination.

Contingency Model

Proposed by Rescorla & Wagner, suggests classical conditioning involves cognitive processes.

Operant Conditioning

Introduced by Skinner, includes the Law of Effect, Principles of Operant Conditioning (Pos. Reinforcement, Neg. Reinforcement, Pos. Punishment, Neg. Punishment), types of Reinforcers, Generalization, Discrimination, Extinction, Spontaneous Recovery, Premack Principle, Overjustification Effect, Shaping, Chaining, and different Reinforcement schedules.

Social (Observational) Learning

Developed by Bandura, focuses on modeling behaviors (Prosocial and Antisocial) in children.

Misc Learning Types

Include Latent learning (Tolman), Cognitive maps, Insight learning (Kohler), Learned Helplessness (Seligman).

Cognition

Covers Encoding (Automatic, Effortful, Shallow, Intermediate, Deep processing, Imagery, Self-referent encoding, Dual encoding, Chunking, Mnemonics), Storage (Information Processing Model, Sensory Memory, Short Term Memory, Long Term Memory, Working Memory Model), Retrieval (Serial Position Effect, Recall, Recognition, Flashbulb memories, Repressed memories, Encoding failure, Retrieval cues, Forgetting curve), and Memory organization.

Theories of Motivation

Include Instinct, Drive Reduction, Optimum Arousal, Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow), Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic motivation.

Hunger

Covers signals of hunger, role of various chemicals, hypothalamus functions, obesity causes and risks, eating disorders like Anorexia and Bulimia.

Sexuality

Discusses the biology of sex, sexual response pattern, and the role of brain structures like the Hypothalamus and Pituitary gland in sexual behavior.

Alfred Kinsey

Conducted pioneering sex studies, suggested high promiscuity, created homosexuality scale

Homosexuality

Rooted in biology, brain differences, higher likelihood in identical twins, later sons (maternal hormones)

Theories of Emotions:

lange, bard etc

James-Lange

Stimulus → physiological arousal → emotion

cannon-bard

Stimulus → arousal & emotion simultaneously

schacter

Adds cognitive labeling, stimulus → arousal → interpret cues → label emotion

Amygdala

Processes some stimuli directly, bypassing frontal cortex (e.g., gut reactions)

Behavioral Factors

Six universal emotions (happiness, anger, sadness, surprise, disgust, fear) across cultures

Non-verbal Cues

Gestures, Duchenne smile (distinguishing real from fake smiles)