CMN112 exam 2- Featherstone & Zhang / NED Disinformation & Propaganda (lec.12)

how is misinformation different from disinformation

intentionality

(deemed incorrect by experts)

two sided appeal vs one sided appeal

two sided appeal: not shooting down or ignoring counters

one sided appeal: seems more forceful

two sided appeal is a refutational appeal, meaning

A type of message in which both sides of the issue are presented in the communication, with arguments offered to refute the opposing viewpoint.

-breaking down two sides

Anger and fear

1. emotional impact

2. results?

1. personal injustice/violation of a standard → desire to work through ANGER to dismantle misinformation

2. results → tried to evoke a fear response

parents vs non-parents (conspiracy beliefs)

parents are more affected by conspiracy style beliefs

-status as parent = more fear response with protecting kids

what is the Soviet planners' definition of Disinformation?

"dissemination (in the press, on the radio, etc) of false reports intended to mislead public opinion"

Disinformation vs propaganda

-disinformation is much younger (and less commonly used) than propaganda, which generally connotes the selective use of information for political effect

Propaganda

-some define it as the use of non-rational arguments to either advance or undermine a political idea, and use disinformation as an alternative name for undermining propaganda

-others consider propaganda and disinformation to be separate concepts altogether

Disinformation

-deliberate

-Analysts generally agree that disinformation is always purposeful and not necessarily composed of outright lies or fabrications

-it can be composed of mostly true facts, stripped of context or blended with falsehoods to support the intended message, and is always part of a larger plan or agenda

Misinformation

generally refers to the unintentional sharing of false information

Distinctions between Propaganda and Disinformation:

disinformation also describes politically motivated messaging designed explicitly to engender public cynicism, uncertainty, apathy, distrust, and paranoia, all of which disincentivize citizen engagement and mobilization for social or political change

Disinformation in the Digital Age

the digital revolution has greatly enhanced public vulnerability to manipulation by information, a trend which is predicted to continue

-advent of new social media platforms & their growing dominance over advertising revenues

-targeted advertising allows for more sophisticated forms of propaganda

this shift in media funding environment has:

- weakened traditional media gatekeepers

-changed incentives for content providers

-promoted the rise of unprofessional and/or unscrupulous outlets capable of drawing large audiences at a low cost

fake news

generally refers to misleading content found on the internet, especially on social media

5 types of fake news:

-intentionally deceptive content

-jokes taken at face value

-large-scale hoaxes

-slanted reporting of real facts

-coverage where the truth may be uncertain or contentious

fake news:

-motives are usually FINANCIAL, not political, and it is usually NOT tied to a larger agenda

- does not meet the definition of disinformation or propaganda

-not unintentional, but motivated by profit rather than influence

-draws audiences because it validates their political preconceptions and worldviews, capitalizing on media consumers' confirmation bias

-many argue that, because social media curates content according to user preferences, it has a polarizing effect that leaves consumers more vulnerable to manipulation in this way

what are the motives of fake news?

financial motives (not political)

-motivated by profit rather than influence

is fake news usually tied to a larger agenda?

no

is fake news intentional?

yes (it's not unintentional)

how does fake news draw audiences?

CONFIRMATION BIAS

because it validates their political preconceptions and worldviews, capitalizing on media consumers' CONFIRMATION BIAS

explain the polarizing effect of fake news

many argue that, because social media curates content according to user preferences, it has a polarizing effect that leaves consumers more vulnerable to manipulation in this way

information campaigns

organized attempts to communicate with large groups of individuals

what are various types of information campaigns

-marketing

-public relations/affairs

-public diplomacy

Marketing and Public Relations/Affairs

-rely on a mix of facts, opinions, and emotional cues to persuade audiences and build affinity between individuals and brands or organizations

-goals may be commercial or political, or they may simply aim to generate publicity

-may or may not rely on non-rational devices

Public Diplomacy

-states utilize this to represent their viewpoints to foreign audiences and promote positive associations with that country among foreign publics

-done well, it distinguishes itself from propaganda by never intentionally spreading false information or relying on non-rational means of persuasion

Strategic Communication

the purposeful use of information and messaging to advance the mission of a given organization, be it a corporate, government, non-profit, or military actor

strategic communication:

-marketing, public relations, public diplomacy, and similar information campaigns are all related to strategic communication

-some advocate that deception should be rigorously forbidden in strategic communication and that the use of disinformation should never fall under the rubric of strategic communication

Intent as a Distinguishing Feature

-some argue that intent of the messenger is crucial to distinguishing between different types of messages

-^ this makes it difficult to draw a bright, clear line between marketing, public relations, and public diplomacy, on one side, and propaganda and disinformation on the other

-^ this is especially true when the content includes both objective fact and subjective interpretation but no clear falsehood, because it may be unclear whether the message reflects a genuine perspective or an intent to mislead (When content doesn't include falsehoods, it may be unclear whether they are accidental or purposeful)

(If an information campaign uses falsehoods and emotional appeals not to persuade or attract but to disrupt, divide, confuse, or otherwise damage target audiences' understanding or political cohesion, it more closely aligns with disinformation and its undermining function)

information operations

a term until recently used primarily by defense officials in referring broadly to the use of communications in military operations

information campaigns with these goals in mind are now sometimes referred to as "information operations"

Facebook's 2017 description of information operations:

aim to "achieve a strategic and/or geopolitical outcome" using "a combination of methods such as false news, disinformation, or networks of fake accounts aimed at manipulating public opinion"

Information Operations as a Tool of Political Influence

-Research suggests that a wide array of political, military, and private actors now routinely use social media to manipulate public opinion

-Information operations are likely to remain a tool of political influence in the future