Cognition

Schema

A framework for thinking that is modified through assimilation and accommodation.

Assimilation

Taking in new information but not changing the schema in light of it.

Accommodation

Taking in new information and changing the schema to incorporate the new information.

Algorithms

Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution to certain types of problems.

Heuristics

A rule of thumb that is generally but not always true that we can use to make a judgment in a situation.

Availability Heuristics

The tendency to estimate the probability of certain events in terms of how readily they come to mind.

Representativeness Heuristics

The tendency to judge the likelihood of things according to how they relate to a prototype.

Overconfidence

An inflated belief in one's own abilities, knowledge, or judgment.

Belief Perseverance

The tendency to hold on to our beliefs even when faced with contradictory evidence.

Rigid Mental Set

The tendency to fall into established thought patterns.

Functional Fixedness

The inability to see a new use for an object.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for and use information that supports our preconceptions and ignore information that refutes our ideas.

Framing

The way a problem is presented.

Gambler’s Fallacy

The failure to recognize the independence of chance events, leading to the mistaken belief that one can predict the outcome of a chance event based on past outcomes.

Sunk Cost Fallacy

The reluctance to abandon a strategy or course of action due to heavy investment, even when abandonment would be more beneficial.

Executive Functions

The cognitive processes that allow individuals to generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-directed behaviors.

Convergent Thinking

Thinking pointed towards one solution.

Divergent Thinking

Thinking that searches for multiple possible answers to a question.

Recall

The process of retrieving information from memory.

Recognition

The process of identifying the target from possible targets.

Encoding

The processing of information into the memory system.

Storage

The retention of encoded material over time.

Retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory storage.

Iconic Memory

Memory for visual stimuli.

Echoic Memory

Memory for sound stimuli.

Prospective Memory

A type of memory related to future actions.

Long-term Potentiation

The process that strengthens synaptic transmission between neurons, thought to be a neural mechanism for learning and memory.

Multi-store Model of Memory

A model by Atkinson & Shiffrin that includes sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Short-term Memory

The storage system that holds about 7 items for about 20 seconds.

Explicit Memories

Memories that can be consciously recalled and articulated.

Implicit Memories

Memories that influence behavior but cannot be consciously recalled.

Episodic Memories

Memories of specific events stored in a sequential order.

Semantic Memories

General knowledge of the world stored as facts, meanings, or categories.

Procedural Memory

Memories of skills and how to perform them.

Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon

The frustrating moment when you know you know something but cannot retrieve it.

Flashbulb Memories

Vivid, detailed memories of significant events, often tied to strong emotions.

Mood Congruent Memory

The tendency to recall memories that are consistent with your current mood.

Ineffective Encoding

A failure to properly encode information into memory.

Decay

Forgetting that occurs because of disuse of a memory.

Retroactive Interference

New information blocks out old information.

Proactive Interference

Old information blocks out new information.

Organic Amnesia

Extensive memory loss due to head injury.

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of memories that formed before a trauma.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories after a trauma.

Fluid Intelligence

Reasoning ability, memory capacity, and speed of information processing.

Crystallized Intelligence

The ability to apply acquired knowledge and skills in problem solving.

Multiple Intelligences Theory

Gardner's theory suggesting there are at least 9 types of intelligences.

Analytical Intelligence

The ability to analyze and evaluate information effectively.

Creative Intelligence

The ability to think outside the box and generate innovative ideas.

Practical Intelligence

The ability to solve everyday problems and adapt to real-world situations.

Standardization in Testing

Uniform procedures to administer and score a test.

Reliability in Testing

The consistency of results when the test is retested.

Validity in Testing

Whether a test measures what it is supposed to measure.

Aptitude Tests

Tests that measure ability or potential.

Achievement Tests

Tests that measure what you have learned.

Fixed Mindset

The belief that intelligence is fixed from birth.

Growth Mindset

The belief that intelligence can adjust due to experience.

Stereotype Threat

Negative stereotypes can undermine the performance of stigmatized groups.

Flynn Effect

The observed rise in IQ scores over time due to societal factors.

Where does long-term potentiation occur?

Long-term potentiation primarily occurs at synapses in the hippocampus and other areas of the brain associated with learning and memory.

Long term memory

An unlimited storehouse of information

Central executive

Directs attention to tasks

Phonological loop

Deals with auditory information and language 

Phonological store

Holds words heard 

Auditoury store

Holds words heard/seen and silently repeated like an inner voice 

Visuospatial sketchpad

Visual and/or spatial info stored here 

Visual cache

What things look like stores information about the form and the color 

Inner scribe

Processes spatial and movement formation 

Episodic buffer

Dedicated to linking information across the domains to form integrated units of visual, spatial, and verbal information, with time sequencing such as the memory of a story, an event, or a movie scene 

Appearance

When we encode only the physical qualities of something 

Phonemic processing

Which is when we encode its sound 

semantic processing

When we encode the meaning of a word and relate it to similar words with similar meaning 

Primary effect

Tendency to remember items at the beginning of the list 

Recency effect

Tendency to remember items at the end of the test 

Serial positioning effect

Tendency to recall information that is presented first and last better than information in the middle 

state dependent memory

idea that you’re more likely to recall information when you’re in the same physical or emotional state as when you learned it. 

Psuedoforgetting

where you think you’ve forgotten something, but in reality, you never really learned it in the first place. 

Intelligence

The ability to gather and use information in productive ways.

Robert Sternberg and his Triarchic Theory

most commonly accepted theory today

Stanford-Binet Test

 Used Binet’s research to construct the modern day IQ test called the