African Warfare

Nature of conflict questions

What is the nature of conflict in Africa—criminal or political violence?

Is Africa conflict-prone?

Many conflicts arise from internal divisions, weak states, and external influences

Domestic vs external conflict causes

African wars stem from identity politics, resource struggles, weak institutions, and foreign involvement

Can democratization trigger conflict?

Yes—countries transitioning to democracy are more vulnerable to instability

Nigeria civil war comparison

Nigeria cannot stop insurgency due to sophisticated weapons; Liberia/Sierra Leone used less modern arms

Old fault lines in African wars

Ethnicity, religion, and regionalism (Primordialism per Clifford Geertz)

Primordialism definition

Conflicts rooted in inherent group identities and loyalties

Instrumentalism definition

Leaders manipulate identity to gain access to state resources

Types of conflict — centralist

Violence aimed at seizing state power and resources (Sierra Leone, Liberia, Rwanda)

Types of conflict — separatist

Groups seek self-determination (Cabinda in Angola; Casamance in Senegal)

Civil war definition

War between organized groups within one state, including secession or government overthrow

Examples of civil wars

Ethiopia-Eritrea (secession), Liberia (policy/government change)

Ethnicity and civil wars

Many but not all civil wars stem from ethnic divisions

Causes of civil conflict — natural resources

Conflict is viable when resources like diamonds, oil, or minerals can fund war

Causes — identity manipulation

Leaders mobilize ethnicity or religion for political gain

Causes — weak state capacity

Low state cohesion, poor coercive power, and porous borders worsen conflict

Democracy & conflict — Paris (2004)

Rapid democratization increases risk of violence

Democracy & conflict — Gleditsch (2001)

Transitioning democracies are more conflict-prone

Democracy & conflict — Ganguly (1996)

Institutional change affects benefits of the political status quo

Democracy & conflict — Laremont & Kalouche (2002)

African political ideology often reflects ethnic bases, not policy

Democracy & conflict — Henderson (2002)

Democratic expansion alone does not guarantee peace

Quasi-interstate wars

Conflicts involving neighboring states or spillovers (eg, Mali & Azawad 2012)

Religious extremism networks

Contribute to regional instability; sometimes framed as "clash of civilizations

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Symmetrical irregular warfare

Most African wars involve irregular forces fighting collapsed state structures

Cold War effects on African wars

Superpowers propped up governments, then withdrew support, causing state collapse

Examples of collapse after Cold War

DR Congo, Somalia, Liberia

International delegitimization of leaders

Sanctions or ICC actions affect internal conflicts (eg, Idriss Déby vs Omar al-Bashir)

US embassy bombings relevance

Increased global focus on terrorism in Africa

Internal terrorism factors

Islamic extremism in Sahel, ethnic factionalization, weak states

External terrorism factors

Al-Qaeda, Boko Haram, Al-Shabab influence

Impacts of war — human

Death, famine, refugees, internally displaced persons (IDPs)

Impacts of war — structural

Destruction of property, collapse of institutions

Key issues in conflict response

UN role, Security Council, sovereignty, civil war prevention

Sovereignty expectation

States should provide welfare and security—but many lack capacity

International intervention debate

Moral responsibility vs sovereignty and non-interference

Humanitarianism definition

Doctrine prioritizing human welfare and alleviating suffering

Humanitarian intervention definition

Military force used by external actors to stop human rights abuses

UN Charter — Article 2(4)

Prohibits use of force between states

UN Charter — Article 2(7)

UN cannot interfere in domestic matters

UN Charter — Article 39

Security Council authorizes force when international security is threatened

UN Charter — Article 51

Recognizes self-defense

Historical genocide statistics — Rwanda 1994

800,000 killed; hundreds of thousands displaced

Somalia conflict duration

Ongoing since 1991

Sierra Leone civil war deaths

Approximately 200,000 killed

DR Congo war toll

Over 5 million dead

Darfur crisis

250,000 dead, 3 million displaced

Intra-state vs inter-state deaths

Four times more deaths in civil wars than interstate wars

Foreign policy — Clinton doctrine

Genocide is a national interest requiring action

Blair doctrine

Intervention justified by values, not territorial goals

Obama doctrine

Universalist approach to humanitarian intervention

Arguments for humanitarian intervention

To halt genocide, stop mass human rights abuses, and prevent failures like Rwanda and Darfur

Arguments against intervention

Risk of abuse, violation of sovereignty, realist view that intervention prolongs war

Responsibility to Protect (R2P) definition

Doctrine that states and international community must protect civilians from atrocity crimes

R2P — three responsibilities

Prevent, react, rebuild

R2P pillars — Pillar 1

State must protect its people

R2P pillars — Pillar 2

International community should assist states

R2P pillars — Pillar 3

International community must intervene if the state fails

African Union — Article 4(g)

AU may intervene in member states for human rights violations

Sovereignty as responsibility (Deng & Annan)

State sovereignty requires protecting citizens

Concerns in Africa (Salim Ahmed Salim)

1990s crises in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Rwanda, Somalia exposed state fragility

Traditional African values referenced

Kinship, "ubuntu," collective responsibility

Limits of government capacity

Many war-torn African states cannot protect civilians even if willing