Vocabulary Unit 1 Foundations of American Democracy

Anarchy

absence of government

Aristocracy

A government in which power is in the hands of a hereditary ruling class or nobility

Authoritarianism

A political system in which a small group of individuals exercises power over the state without being constitutionally responsible to the public.

Capitalism

An economic system based on private ownership of capital. Private individuals or businesses own and control the means of production, driven by profit and competition in free markets.

Conservatism

A political or theological orientation advocating the preservation of the best in society and opposing radical changes. They are focused on preserving traditional institutions, values, and customs, emphasizing gradual change, organic societal development, and skepticism of radical reform

Democracy

A political system in which the supreme power lies in a body of citizens who can elect people to represent them. Their powers are exercised directly or through elected reps, valuing majority rule, individual rights, accountability, and peaceful power shifts

Democratic Republic

A republic in which representatives elected by the people make and enforce laws and policies. Key aspects involve popular sovereignty, representation, constitutional limits, and often a separation of powers, ensuring rule by law, not just majority will. 

Direct Democracy

A form of government in which citizens rule directly and not through representatives

Divine Right of Kings

the belief that the authority of kings comes directly from God

Elite Democracy (elitism)

Political system in which power is concentrated in the hands of a relatively small group of individuals or institutions. While citizens vote, these elites—business leaders, politicians, intellectuals—shape policy, often through campaign finance, media, and expertise, contrasting with broader participatory democracy

Eminent domain

Power of a government to take private property for public use.

Equality

the state of being equal, especially in status, rights, and opportunities.

Government

the system or group running an organized community (like a state), typically with legislative (laws), executive (enforcement), and judicial (interpretation) branches, responsible for making rules, providing services (security, infrastructure, welfare), and maintaining order

Hyperpluralism

a political theory describing when too many competing interest groups (lobbyists, PACs, unions, etc.) become so influential that the government becomes fragmented, paralyzed, and unable to govern effectively

Ideology (Political Ideology)

A comprehensive set of beliefs about the nature of people and about the role of an institution or government. It primarily concerns itself with how to allocate power and the ends for which that power should be used. 

Initiative

A procedure by which voters can propose a law or a constitutional amendment.

Institution

established organizations, rules, and practices structuring political life, like Congress (legislature), the Presidency (executive), the Courts (judiciary), bureaucracies (agencies), political parties, and even elections

Legislature

A group of people who have the power to make laws. Primarily refers to the U.S. Congress (House & Senate), a bicameral body making laws, controlling spending, declaring war, and overseeing the executive, featuring unique powers (House: impeachment; Senate: treaties/appointments)

Liberalism

A belief that government can and should achieve justice and equality of opportunity. In other words it emphasizes individual rights, equality, and social justice, supporting government intervention to solve societal problems like inequality, fund social programs (education, healthcare), protect the environment, and ensure civil liberties, aligning generally with the Democratic Party and advocating for a mixed economy with regulation and welfare-state policies

Libertarianism

A political ideology that is opposed to all government action except as necessary to protect life and property. It emphasizes maximum individual liberty, minimal government, and free markets

Liberty

freedom

Limited government

A principle of constitutional government; a government whose powers are defined and limited by a constitution.

Linkage Institutions

the political channels through which people's concerns become political issues on the policy agenda. It primarily consisting of elections, political parties, interest groups, and the media. These structures provide ways for people to communicate preferences, participate in the political process, and influence policy through voting

Majority

more than half

Majority rule

Governance according to the expressed preferences of the majority.

Majority rule with minority rights

majority rule wins but the rights of individuals in the minority will be protected

Minority

any category of people distinguished by physical or cultural difference that a society sets apart and subordinates

Oligarchy

A government ruled by a few powerful people

Participatory Democracy

emphasizes broad citizen involvement in decision-making, going beyond just voting to include influencing policy through town halls, forums, and community engagement, differing from pure direct democracy by relying on representatives to implement decisions but empowering citizens to shape them, seen in mechanisms like participatory budgeting or issue-specific movements

Pluralist Democracy

Pluralist democracy is a political system in which power is distributed widely among many diverse, non-governmental groups that compete to influence public policy, preventing any single entity from dominating the government. Emphasizes bargaining and deal making

Political Culture

Political culture is the shared beliefs, values, norms, and attitudes that shape how people view government, politics, and their role within the political system, influencing everything from citizen participation to support for specific policies, and is unique to each society

Political Participation

Political participation involves any activity citizens take to influence government decisions, policies, or leaders, ranging from traditional acts like voting, contacting officials, and campaigning, to modern digital engagement (social media) and protest, all aimed at shaping how they are governed and affecting public life, democracy, and social good. It's essential for democracy, empowering individuals, and addressing societal issues, with methods evolving from local town halls to global online movements. 

Political Socialization

the process by which people gain their political attitudes and opinions

Politics

politics is the process of how groups make decisions, distribute resources, and use power through negotiation and debate, involving institutions (Congress, courts), Linkage Institutions (parties, media, interest groups, elections), and citizen participation (voting, activism) to influence policy in a system like the US's constitutional republic. It's how we get from public needs to public policy, focusing on power dynamics, influence, and the formation of government. 

Recall

A type of election that allows voters to remove an elected official before their term ends. ex. of direct democracy/popular sov.

Referendum

a referendum is a state-level method of direct legislation that gives voters a chance to approve or disapprove proposed legislation or a proposed constitutional amendment. It allows citizens to vote directly on a specific issue or policy, rather than relying solely on elected representatives. 

Representation

Representation means elected officials act on behalf of their constituents (the people who elected them) in government, making laws and decisions reflecting their interests

Representative Democracy

A system of government in which citizens elect representatives, or leaders, to make decisions about the laws for all the people.

Republic

A form of government in which citizens choose their leaders by voting.

Social Contract

A voluntary agreement among individuals to secure their rights and also give up some to gain the governments protection.

Socialism

Socialism is a political and economic system where the community or government owns/controls the means of production (factories, resources) to ensure greater equality, social welfare, and reduced income gaps

Totalitarian regime

A form of government that controls all aspects of the political and social life of a nation.

Universal Suffrage

Universal Suffrage means the right for all adult citizens in a country to vote, regardless of race, gender, property, wealth, or social status, ensuring full political participation and reflecting democratic ideals of equality and inclusion in the electorate. 

Amending Process

the amendment process is the formal, challenging procedure in Article V of the U.S. Constitution for making changes, requiring high consensus via proposal (2/3 Congress or 2/3 States) and ratification (3/4 States or state conventions) to adapt the foundational document to new needs while maintaining stability

Articles of Confederation

A weak constitution that governed America during the Revolutionary War, almost all power lies with the states which created a weak central government with limited powers (no taxing, regulating trade, or executive/judicial branches) and strong state sovereignty, forming a "league of friendship" that struggled with economic instability and national security, ultimately leading to the Constitutional Convention and Shays Rebellion.

Anti-Federalist

people who opposed the Constitution

Article I

Legislative Branch, creates bicameral and allows use of implied powers. (introduces necessary and proper)

Article II

Executive Branch, establishes President and VP and gives them powers.

Article III

Judicial Branch, creates supreme court and gives them judiciary powers.

Article IV

Relations among states, requires recognition of others, and determines how to admit new ones.

Article V

Amending the Constitution

Article VI

Supremacy Clause, constitution, treaties, and laws are the law of land.

Article VII

Ratification, consitution goes into affect after 9/13 votes.

Bicameral Legislature

a lawmaking body made up of two chambers or parts

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the Constitution

Bill of Attainder

a law that punishes a person accused of a crime without a trial or a fair hearing in court

Brutus No. 1

a crucial Anti-Federalist essay (1787) arguing against ratifying the U.S. Constitution, warning that a large, powerful central government would lead to tyranny, destroy state sovereignty, and make true representation impossible, advocating instead for smaller, decentralized republics to protect liberty. Key concerns focused on the Necessary and Proper and Supremacy Clauses, which Brutus argued gave Congress too much power, and the impracticality of governing a vast nation, ultimately pushing for a Bill of Rights. 

Central Government

a Central Government is the primary, supreme governing authority for an entire nation, responsible for national issues like defense, foreign policy, and interstate commerce, holding ultimate power but often sharing or delegating authority with state/local governments in systems like federalism or unitary systems

Checks and Balances

A system that allows each branch of government to limit the powers of the other branches in order to prevent abuse of power

Confederation

system where sovereign states form a union but keep most power, creating a weak central government with limited authority, often for defense or trade, as seen with the US under the Articles of Confederation,

Declaration of Independence

the document recording the proclamation of the second Continental Congress (4 July 1776) asserting the independence of the colonies from Great Britain

Electoral College

A group of people named by each state legislature to select the president and vice president

Factions

Political groups that agree on objectives and policies; the origins of political parties.

Federalist

Federalists were supporters of the proposed U.S. Constitution during the late 18th century who advocated for a strong national government and a system of checks and balances. They believed that a centralized authority was essential to maintain order and protect individual liberties, standing in contrast to the Anti-Federalists, who feared that a strong central government would infringe on states' rights and individual freedoms.

Federalist #10

Federalist No. 10, by James Madison, is crucial for explaining how a large republic controls factions (groups with interests against others/public good) by diluting their power through diverse interests, representation, and an extended territory, preventing majority tyranny and ensuring stability better than small republics. Madison argues factions are inevitable but their negative effects (like majority oppression) are best managed by a large, diverse republic with elected representatives, making it hard for any single group to dominate

Federalist #51

Federalist No. 51 (1788) by James Madison explains how the U.S. Constitution's design of separate government branches with checks and balances prevents tyranny, ensuring power is divided so ambition counteracts ambition, with each branch controlling the others to protect liberty

Federal System

the Federal System (Federalism) is a system where power is divided between a central national government and regional (state/local) governments, sharing authority over the same people and land, defined by the Constitution, involving powers like enumerated, concurrent, and reserved, evolving through stages like dual (layered cake) and cooperative (marble cake) federalism, and shaped by key clauses (Necessary & Proper, Commerce, Supremacy) and Supreme Court cases (like McCulloch v. Maryland

the "Grand Committee"

the Grand Committee (or Committee of Eleven) was a crucial, temporary committee at the 1787 Constitutional Convention, composed of one delegate from each state, formed to break deadlocks, most notably crafting the Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise), which resolved the fierce debate between large and small states over representation in Congress, creating the bicameral legislature (House based on population, Senate with equal votes) we have today. 

Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise)

The Great Compromise (or Connecticut Compromise) was a crucial agreement at the 1787 Constitutional Convention that established the bicameral U.S. Congress, blending proportional representation (Virginia Plan) and equal state representation (New Jersey Plan) by creating the House of Representatives (population-based) and the Senate (equal representation per state), solving the large vs. small state deadlock and creating the federal legislature we have today

Impeachment

A formal document charging a public official with misconduct in office

John Locke

17th century English philosopher who opposed the Divine Right of Kings and who asserted that people have a natural right to life, liberty, and property.

New Jersey Plan

The New Jersey Plan was a proposal at the 1787 Constitutional Convention by William Paterson, advocating for a unicameral (one-house) legislature where every state had equal representation (one vote), preserving state sovereignty, unlike the population-based Virginia Plan, and aiming to amend the Articles of Confederation with stronger federal powers to tax and regulate commerce, ultimately leading to the Great Compromise with its equal Senate representation. 

Virginia Plan

Proposal to create a strong national government. the Virginia Plan was a key proposal at the 1787 Constitutional Convention, advocating for a powerful national government with three branches (legislative, executive, judicial) and a bicameral (two-house) legislature where representation was based on population, favoring larger states; it set the agenda for debates, contrasting with the New Jersey Plan and ultimately influencing the Great Compromise

Three-fifths Compromise

Agreement that each slave counted as three-fifths of a person in determining representation in the House for representation and taxation purposes (negated by the 13th amendment)

Tyranny of the majority

The potential of a majority to monopolize power for its own gain to the detriment of minority rights and interests. The U.S. Constitution limits this through a republic (representative democracy), separation of powers, federalism, checks and balances, and the Bill of Rights, ensuring minority rights (like free speech) aren't trampled by popular vote, balancing majority rule with individual liberty. 

Madisonian Model

A structure of government proposed by James Madison in which the powers of the government are separated into three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial.

Natural Rights

the idea that all humans are born with rights, which include the right to life, liberty, and property

Popular sovereignty

Popular Sovereignty is the core principle that the government's power and legitimacy come directly from the consent of the people, expressed through voting, participation, and elected representatives

Preamble

the Preamble ("We the People...") is the introduction to the U.S. Constitution, outlining its core purposes: forming a better Union, establishing justice, ensuring domestic tranquility, providing common defense, promoting general welfare, and securing liberty for present and future generations, setting the foundation for American government's goals and philosophy

Ratification

Formal approval

Representative Assembly

a Representative Assembly is a core concept for representative democracies, meaning people elect officials (representatives) to gather, debate, and pass laws for them, like the U U.S. Congress (House & Senate), embodying the people's will, as opposed to direct democracy

Separation of Powers

Separation of Powers divides U.S. government into three distinct branches—Legislative (Congress makes laws), Executive (President enforces laws), and Judicial (Courts interpret laws)—to prevent tyranny, with each branch having unique roles and powers, often working alongside Checks and Balances to limit each other's authority

Slave Trade Compromise

Congress could not regulate or outlaw slavery or slave trade until 1808

Supremacy Clause (Supremacy Doctrine)

The constitutional provision that makes the Constitution and federal laws superior to all conflicting state and local laws. It establishes the U.S. Constitution, federal laws, and treaties as the "supreme Law of the Land,"

Supreme Court of the United States (SCOTUS)

The highest court in the federal court system; established by Article III of the Constitution

Unicameral legislature

One-house legislature

United States Constitution

Document creating the United States government. Based on Enlightenment ideas. Ratified in 1788. the U.S. Constitution is the supreme law, creating a federal republic with separation of powers (Legislative, Executive, Judicial branches) and checks and balances, establishing federalism (power shared with states), protecting rights (Bill of Rights), and outlining government structure via 7 Articles, emphasizing principles like popular sovereignty and limited government

Writ of Habeas Corpus

A court order requiring jailers to explain to a judge why they are holding a prisoner in custody.

Americans with Disabilities Act 1990

A law that requires employers and public facilities to make "reasonable accommodations" for people with disabilities and prohibits discrimination against these individuals in employment.

Balance of power

"Balance of Power" refers to how power is distributed and checked, primarily through Separation of Powers (Legislative, Executive, Judicial) with Checks and Balances (each branch limits others) and Federalism (power shared between national/state govts), ensuring no single entity dominates

Block grants

Federal grants given more or less automatically to states or communities to support broad programs in areas such as community development and social services

Categorical grants

Federal grants for specific purposes, such as building an airport

Clean Air Act 1970

The law aimed at combating air pollution, by charging the EPA with protecting and improving the quality of the nation's air.

Commerce Clause

The clause in the Constitution (Article I, Section 8, Clause 1) that gives Congress the power to regulate all business activities that cross state lines or affect more than one state or other nations.

Concurrent powers

Powers held jointly by the national and state governments.

Conditions-of-aid

terms set by the national government that states must meet if they are to receive certain federal funds

Confederal System

is a weak central government with limited power, where independent states hold the most authority, making decisions for themselves and only granting the national body specific, few powers (like defense), as seen with the U.S. under the Articles of Confederation

Cooperative Federalism ("marble cake" federalism)

Federal, state, and local governments work together and share power on a variety of issues, with their responsibilities intertwined and overlapping, much like the colors in a marble cake

Devolution

the transfer of powers and responsibilities from the federal government to the states

Dual Federalism ("layered cake" federalism)

Represents a system with a strict separation of powers between the national and state governments, with each level dominant in its own sphere without the others interference(national govt handles defense/foreign policy, states handle local issues).