AP Lang

Allusion

Brief reference to a person, event, or place (real or fictitious) or to a work of art.

Analogy

  A comparison between two seemingly dissimilar things. Often, an analogy uses something simple or familiar to explain something unfamiliar or complex. 

Example: As birds have flight, our special gift is reason.

Anadiplosis

A device in which the writer repeats a word or phrase at the beginning of multiple clauses or sentences.

Examples: “Tell them to be good, tell them to follow their elders, and tell them to mind their manners.” 

“In adversity, his close friends left him, his close colleagues left him, and his close relatives left him.”

Anecdote

A short amusing or interesting story about a real incident or person that speakers use to illustrate a point

Antanagoge

A way of ordering points to downplay negative points, so the reader feels less strongly about them. This is done by placing a negative point next to a positive one. The statement should be phrased in such a way that it becomes apparent that the benefits more than outweigh the costs of the subject you’re discussing.

Example: “While cutting automobile pollution may cause car makers to lose money in the short run, the benefits of cleaner air and a decrease in deaths by respiratory disease are definitely worth the risk to businesses.

Antimetabole

Repetition of words in reverse order. 

Examples: “Ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country.”—John F. Kennedy

“You don’t stop playing because you get old. You get old because you stop playing.”

Antithesis

Opposition, or contrast, of ideas or words in a parallel construction. 

Example: We shall . . . support any friend, oppose any foe . . .—John F. Kennedy

Aphorism

These are short, concise, and memorable statements that express a wise idea or truth. They motivate people to action and create the impression that the issues at stake are not necessarily tied to the exact circumstances but that they imply a greater truth.

Apostrophe

A rhetorical device in which the writer breaks out of the flow of the writing to directly address a person or personified object.

Example: “Liberty, O glorious triumph of man, O mighty force that ends all tyranny! 

Wherever man shakes off his shackles, there you dwell!”

Asyndeton

Omission of conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, or words. 

Example: “We shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and success of liberty.” —John F. Kennedy

Call to action

Conclude any piece of persuasive writing with a call to action.  Ask your audience to do something.  Ask them to write to their congressman, to boycott a product, to disseminate information, etc.

Climax

Organizing single words, to short clauses, to longer sentences, to entire paragraphs so they proceed from the least to the most important to slowly build your reader up to a state of excitement, then deliver your crowning statements.

Concession to the opposition

 Concedes a point or two to win over opponents and to show the speaker is open-minded.  The speaker is able to prove his argument is valid despite these concessions.  In a strong argument, concessions are usually accompanied by a refutation challenging the validity of the opposing argument.

Distinctio

The writer elaborates on the definition of a word to make sure there is no misunderstanding. 

Example: “Before we can discuss immigration, we need to agree on the fact that there are huge differences between legal and illegal immigration.

Enthymeme

Essentially a syllogism with one of the premises implied, and taken for granted as understood. 

Example: You should take her class because I learned so much from her last year implied premise if you take her class you will learn a lot too.

Enumeratio

The act of supplying a list of details about something. It is used structurally to expand on a central idea, lending force to that idea by enumerating its many different facets.

Eponym

Similar to an allusion, this term refers to a specific famous person to link his or her attributes with someone else.

Example: “Gary was an Abe Lincoln in yesterday’s debate.”

Exclamations

Use of highly emotional or provocative statements. 

Example: “Give me liberty or give me death!”  “Speech in the Virginia Convention” by Patrick Henry

Exemplum

Providing your reader with an example to illustrate your point.

Example: “The U.S. government gives its citizens freedom; one illustration of this is that we have the right to criticize our leaders.”

Hortative Sentence

A sentence that exerts, urges, intrigues, implores, or calls to action. 

Example: Let both sides explore what problems unite us instead of belaboring those problems which divide us. JFK

Hypophora

The technique of asking a question, then proceeding to answer it. 

Loaded Language

The use of name calling to evoke an emotional response and to make writing more memorable.  

Example: In The American Crisis, Paine uses negative words such as devils, common murderers, and highwaymen to describe the British.

Metabasis

 A device used to sum up a body of work that has come before, so that you can move on to a new point.

Example: “I have discussed cars and factories and how these relate to global warming, but we have still to look at long-term atmospheric trends.

Parallelism (Anaphora)

Repeat the use of a phrase or syntactical pattern to begin or end a series of sentences. Parallelism adds balance and rhythm and, most importantly, clarity to the sentence.  

Example:  “We have petitioned; we have remonstrated; we have supplicated; we have prostrated ourselves . . .”  (“We have” followed by the past tense of a verb)  “Speech in the Virginia Convention” by Patrick Henry 

Polysyndeton

The deliberate use of multiple conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, or words. 

Example: I paid for my plane ticket, and the taxes, and the fees, and the charge for the checked bag, and $5 for a bottle of water.

Procatalepsis

A relative of the “hypophora.” While the hypophora can ask any sort of question, the procatalepsis deals specifically with objections, and it usually does so without even asking the question.

Example: “Many other experts want to classify Sanskrit as an extinct language, but I do not.”

Rebuttal/Refutation

Diminish the power of the opponent by anticipating and then countering his arguments or exposing the weaknesses of his arguments. A denial of the validity of an opposing argument. In order to sound reasonable, refutations often follow a concession that acknowledges that an opposing argument may be true or reasonable.

Repetition

 Repeating the same sentence again in the same words or repeating the same word in a sentence is an important technique for achieving cohesion.  Of course, careless or excessive repetition is boring and wordy.  Used skillfully and selectively, however, this technique can help to hold sentences together and focus the reader’s attention on a central idea. 

Example: “Free at last!  Free at last!  Thank God almighty.  Free at last!”  “I Have a Dream” by MLK

Restatement (Similar to a motif in fiction)

Reiterate a key idea in a different way each time.  

Example:  

In the “Speech in the Virginia Convention,” Patrick Henry reiterates the key idea that we must fight or become slaves:

a.  “For my own part, I consider it as nothing less than a question of freedom or 

slavery.”

b.  “They are sent over to bind and rivet upon us those chains . . ..”

Rhetorical Appeals

Rhetorical techniques used to persuade an audience by emphasizing what they find most important or compelling. The three major appeals are ethos, pathos, and logos.

Ethical Appeal (Ethos)

Use this type of appeal to foster confidence in the writer’s or speaker’s honesty, credibility, open-mindedness, and/or knowledge on the subject.  Ethos is established by both who you are and what you say.

Example: “Not all the treasurers of the world, so far as I believe, could have induced me to support an offensive war, for I think it is murder . . .”  The American Crisis by Thomas Paine 

Emotional Appeal (Pathos)

Speakers appeal to pathos to emotionally motivate their 

audience. More specific appeals to pathos might play on the audience’s values, desires, and hopes, on the one hand, or fears and prejudices, on the other.

Example: In The American Crisis, the story of the tavern keeper and his nine-year-old child is intended to arouse his audience emotionally to the need of achieving peace and freedom for their children.

Logical Appeal (Logos)

Speakers appeal to logos, or reason, by offering clear, rational ideas and using specific details, examples, facts, statistics, a chain of reasoning, or expert testimony to back them up.

Example: “Britain, with an army to enforce her tyranny, has declared that she has a right (not only to tax) but “to bind us in all cases whatsoever, and if being bound in that manner, is not slavery, then is there not such a thing as slavery upon earth?”  The American Crisis by Thomas Paine 

Rhetorical Question

 A question to which no answer is expected because the answer is obvious or a figure of speech in the form of a question posed for rhetorical effect rather than for the purpose of getting an answer.  Use them to emphasize a point, to create an emotional effect, to anticipate counterarguments, or to empower your audience. This technique will often convince them they are making the decision when in fact you have simply steered them to it.