def lexical and auxiliary v
aux: used w/ lexical to create a sctucture
lex: refere to reality, an action or a state
what are the 2 types of auxiliary v. possible ?
1 - auxiliary: related to identity (do, be, have)
2 - modal: capacité, devoir, possibilité (can, shall, must, may, will…)
order of combination
modal - perfect - progressive - passive - lexical
(‘you may have been being spied on’')
7 utilisations of auxiliary (cases you use it)
progressive, passive voice, perfect aspect, emphasis, negation, question, ellipsis
def aspect
grammatical tool used to express how actions and states expend over time
use of present simple
1 - habits + general truth
2 - narration
3 - future close
4 - future in subordinate clauses (1st future; 2nd present)
5 - description + caption
6 - emotions, wishes, states
use present progressive
1 - action ongoing
2 - intention, attend to do
3 - subjectivity (irritation, order)
difference present simple / progressive
simple: generic statement, true anytime (entirety action)
progressive: specific statements, true at the moment of utterance (specific stage)
2 uses of preterit
1 - temporal (event no longer real)
2 - modal: hipothesis
uses of simple past
1 - narration
2 - past habits
3 - schedule future in the past
4 - counterfactual facts (if someone do, i would…)
5 - politeness
6 - future in subordinate clauses (they said they’d come as soon as she called)
uses past progressive
equivalent of present
1 - temporal frame for past event
what does the present perfect express + how to translate it
connection btw past and present
translated by present
uses present perfect simple
1 - recent events / present relevance
2 - experience
3 - events still ongoing at the moment of utterance
= result of an action
uses present perfect progressive
1 - recent, repeated event
2 - habitual event still ongoing
3 - events whose trace are still perceptible
4 - nuance of surprise / irritation / reproche
= proceeding of an action
5 types of nouns
1 - count nouns (plurial - singular form)
2 - singular non-count (luggage, waste, advice, evidence)
3 - plurial non-count (pants, math, info, news…)
4 - collective noun (gpe beings (the police, clergy…)
5 - proper name
different types of determiners/articles
1 - possessif + genitif (my, your, his… ‘s)
2 - demonstratifs
3 - quantifiers
uses of genitif
1 - rapport de possession
2 - exprimer “chez”
3 - lier action à celui qui la fait/subit
4 - classifiant (sous-categorie, ex: a comen’s magazine)
quantifier: denombrable/indenombrable
+underlying sens of “a”
denombrable : few, many (plurial noun)
indenombrable : little, much (singular noun)
a + few/little = +
without “a'“ = -
3 differents fonctions of adj
1 attributive (=épithète)
2 - appositional (=appositif)
3 - predicate (=attribut) subject or object complement
order adj
TAFCOM
taille, age, forme, couleur, origine, matière
= subjective to objective
comparative (=, +, -)
1 - as + adj + as
2 - more + adj(er) + than
3 - less + adj + than (utilise plutôt égalité négative/adj sens opposé)
comparative / superlative particular
good : better, best
bad : worse, worst
far : further, furthest
adj composé + trad:
plus… plus
d’autant plus que
de plus en plus
liste of nouns/adj/number + ed (w/ - b/ each)
trad :
add ‘the’ bf adj
all the more… bc/for/as
more and more
construction passive
sujet + be + pp v. lexical (+ by to introduce agent)
temps = même qu’à la voix active
uses passive voice
1 - si connait pas agent (mec qui fait action)
2 - si pas pertinent de le mentionner
3 - si on veut pas dire qui c’est
4 - hypothèse
5 - traduire certains verbes pronominaux (se + v.)
caracteristic passive w/ get (when get replace be)
+ subjectif, action accidentelle, résultat (mal)heureux