HDFS 2200 Exam 2 (Chapter 7-11)

encoding

process by which information gets into memory

automaticity

ability to process information with little or no effort

metacognition

“knowing about knowing” or “thinking about thinking”

• involves several dimensions of executive function, such as planning, evaluation, and self-regulation

• helps people perform cognitive tasks more effectively

why does processing speed matter?

• how quickly we process information influences what we can do with that information

• linked with their competence in many aspects of cognition

reaction time and age

• speed at which tasks are completed improves dramatically across the childhood years

• speed continues to improve in adolescence

• speed begins to decline in middle adulthood, and continues into late adulthood

attention

focusing of mental resources that can be allocated in various ways

selective attention

focus on one aspect of experience that is relevant while ignoring others that are irrelevant

divided attention

focus on more than one activity

sustained attention

maintaining attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time

executive attention

planning actions, giving attention to goals, detecting and compensating for errors, monitoring progress, and dealing with new or difficult circumstances

habituation

decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations

dishabituation

recovery of responsiveness after a change in stimulation

joint attention

two or more individuals focus on the same object of event

• requires ability to track another’s behavior (following a gaze)

salient dimensions

features that immediately attract attention due to their conspicuous nature (e.g., bright colors, loud sounds, movement)

• directs voluntary and involuntary attention based on external, sensory input

relevant dimensions

features that are crucial for completing a specific goal or answering a question (e.g., specific voice of a person you are talking to)

• directs purposeful, goal-oriented behavior, often ignoring irrelevant bright/loud stimuli

multitasking in childhood

older children and adolescents are better at shifting attention from one activity to another as needed

• use of multiple electronic media increases multitasking

• considerably reduces attention to complex tasks

attention to relevant information in childhood

increases through elementary and secondary school

• processing of irrelevant attention decreases in adolescence

attention to relevant information in adulthood

• excellent in early adulthood

• older adults have trouble focusing on relevant information as effectively (e.g., less adept at exercising selective attention; usually perform as well as younger adults on tasks involving sustained attention and simple vigilance)

memory encoding

getting information into memory

memory storage

retaining information over time

memory retrieval

taking information out of storage

schema theory

people mold memories to fit information that already exists in their minds

schema

mental frameworks that organize concepts and information

• influence the way people encode, make inferences about, and retrieve information

• often gaps are filled in when memories are retrieved

implicit memory

memory without conscious recollection; memory of skills and routine procedures performed automatically

• less likely to be adversely affected by aging

explicit memory

conscious memory of facts and experiences

• can be subdivided into episodic memory and semantic memory

infants and explicit memory

infants do not show explicit memory until after 6 months

infantile amnesia

• most adults can remember very little (if anything) from the first three years of life

• by age 8-9, children’s memory of events at age 3 begin to significantly fade away (immaturity of hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of the brain plays a role)

• memory significantly improves after infancy

long-term memory

memory that is relatively permanent and unlimited, storing huge amounts of information for a long time

• children’s long-term memory improves more as they age

short-term memory

retention of information for up to 30 seconds without rehearsal of the information

• individuals can retain information longer using rehearsal

• short-term memory increases during childhood (older children use rehearsal more than younger children)

working memory

when individuals manipulate and assemble information when making deciisons, problem solving, and comprehending language

• develops slowly

autobiographical memory

significant events and experiences

• culture has a strong influence

declining memory in adulthood

working memory and processing speed decline with age

• working memory declines from age 65-89 (has plasticity—and can be improved through training and exercise)

episodic memory

retention of information about the where and when of life’s happenings

• ex: autobiographical memories

reminiscence bump

adults remember more events from ages 10-30

• particularly strong for happy memories

• believed to be preserved because they are central to identity

• less personally relevant memories fade with time (e.g., INSIDE OUT!)

semantic memory

knowledge about the world

• ex: fields of expertise, general academic knowledge, “everyday knowledge”, names of famous individuals, important places, common things

• older adults often take longer to retrieve semantic information, but are usually successful

source memory

ability to remember where one learned something

• contexts may include physical setting, emotional context, or identity of speaker

• failures increase with age

thinking

manipulating and transforming information in memory to reason, reflect, think critically, evaluate ideas, solve problems, and make decisions

concepts

cognitive groupings of similar objects, events, people, or ideas

• key aspects of infants’ cogintive development

executive function

number of higher level cognitive processes linked to development of the brain’s prefrontal cortex

• involves managing one’s thoughts to engage in goal-directed behavior and to exercise self-control

• linked to school readiness

critical thinking

thinking reflectively and productively, and evaluating the evidence

executive function and aging

• advances in middle and late childhood (increases in self-control/inhibition, working memory, flexibility)

• decline in older adulthood (less effective at engaging in cognitive control)

decision-making and aging

• older adults are described as more competent in decision-making than younger adults (more likely to generate options, examine situations from a variety of perspectives, etc.)

• adolescents are more likely to engage in risky decision-making (e.g., alcohol and drug use, unprotected s-x)

theory of mind

awareness of one’s own mental processes and the mental processes of other’s

• sharpens as an individual ages, with a decline occuring in older adulthood

cognitive processes in adults and their possible decline

USE IT OR LOSE IT

intelligence

ability to solve problems and adapt and learn from experiences

Stanford-Binet 5

originally created by Alfred Binet, and was revised to analyze an individual’s response in 5 content areas:

1. fluid reasoning

2. knowledge

3. quantitative reasoning

4. visual - spatial reasoning

5. working memory

Wechser Scales

initially designed for use with adults and is the other most widely used intelligence test

• current editions (WISC-V) can be used for young childre and older children/adolescents

• provides an overall IQ score, but also yields 5 composite scores (verbal comprehension, working memory, processing speed, fluid reasoning, and visual spatial)

use and misuse of intelligence tests

single number can easily lead to false expectations and sweeping generalizations are too often made on basis of IQ scores and can become self-fulfilling prophecies

• should be used in conjunction with other information (developmental or medical history, school performance, social skills, family experience, etc.)

wisdom

expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life that permits excellent judgment about important matters

• insight about human development and life matters, good judgment, and understanding of how to cope with difficult life problems

creativity

ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and to come up with unique, good solutions of problems

• requires divergent thinking, which produces many answers to the same question

five step sequence of creativity

preparation, incubation, insight, evaluation, elaboration

• not always moved through in a linear fashion

language

a form of cmmunication—whether spoken, written, or signed—based on a system of symbols

• consists of words used by a community and rules for varying and combining them

phonology

sound system of language

• sounds that are used and how they may be combined

phoneme

basic unit of sound in a language

morphology

units of meaning involved in word formation

• rules dictate the way units can be combined into words

morpheme

smallest unit of meaning in a language

• not all are words by themselves

syntax

ways in which words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences

semantics

meaning of words and sentences

pragmatics

appropriate use of language in different contexts

• rules can be complex and differ from one culture to another

language development at 2-4 months

cooing begins

language development at 5-12 months

infants indicate their first understanding of words

• understand them before they can speak them

language development at 8-12 months

uses gestures, such as showing and pointing, and comprehension of words appears

first words

occurs usually around 10-15 months

• children of North Americantend to have nouns as first word, and children of Asian cultures tend to have verbs as first word

language development at 18-24 months

utilizing two-word phrases and the rapid expansion of understanding of words

overextension

tendency to apply a word to objects that are inappropriate for the word’s meaning

• ex: calling all men “daddy”

underextension

applying a word too narrowly

• ex: calling just their own dog “puppy”

telegraphic speech

use of smart and precise words without grammatical markers such as articles, auxiliary verbs, and other connectives

• not limited to two-word phrases

language development in early childhood

• gradually become more sensitive to sounds of words and more capable of producing all the sounds of their language

• begin to demonstrate use of morphology rules

• gain in semantics and more complex vocabulary

Berko’s Study of Morphological Rules

Wug and Wugs

• Q: how did the children know the plural version of a word they had never heard before?

• A: understanding of morphology rules in their language

fast mapping

making a connection between a word and its meaning after limited exposure to a word

six key principles in vocabulary development

• children learn the words they hear most often

• children learn words for things and events that interest them

• children learn words best in responsive and interactive contexts rather than passive contexts

• children learn words best in meaningful contexts

• children learn words best when they access clear information about word meaning

• children learn words best when grammar and vocabulary are considered

alphabetic principle

the understanding that letters (graphemes) and letter combinations represent individual sounds (phonemes) in spoken language, forming the foundation for reading and writing

whole-language approach to reading

parallels children’s natural language learning

• recognize whole words or sentences and use the context of what they are reading to guess the meanings of words

phonics approach to reading

teaches basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds

sensitive periods for bilingualism

• vary acorss language systems

• for adolescents and adults, new vocabulary is easier to learn than new sounds or grammar

• ability to pronounce words with a native-like accent in a second language decreases with age

• sharp drop occurs after age 10-12

subtractive lingualism

in the U.S., many immigrant children that learn a new language at school end up being monolingual speakers of English

personal linguistic style

a person’s characteristic, habitual pattern of speaking and writing, encompassing word choice, pacing, tone, and directness

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

the temporary inability to recall a well-known word despite feeling that retrieval is imminent

• experienced heavily by older adults

• may be attributed to hearing loss