Bio 1040 Exam 1: Anatomy and Physiology, Circulation, and Digestion, Respiration,

Anatomy

the study of an organism’s structures

Physiology

the study of the functions of the structures

Cell

the smallest unit of organization in all organisms

Tissue

group of cells that share similar structure and function

Organ

group of tissues that perform specialized functions

Organ Systems

group of organs that work together to accomplish one or a few, usually related, physiological functions

Tissues

groups of similarly functioning cells that work together to perform a new function

4 Main Types of Tissues:

Connective, Epithelial, Muscle, and Nervous

Epithelial Tissue

composed of densely packed epithelial cells that form the outside of organisms (skin) and the lining of organs

Simple Squamous

Flat, single layer of squamous tissues

Stratified Squamous

multiple layers of squamous tissue

Cuboidal

cube shaped epithelium

Columnar

Column shaped epithelial tissues

Pseudostratified

one layer of epithelial tissue, but nuclei have different heights

Why are approximately 80% of cancer cells epithelial cells?

epithelial cells come in contact with the outside world and are subjected to more damage from chemicals, toxins, and UV radiation compared to other cell types

Connective Tissue

relatively low in cell number, secrete molecules to build a matrix

Matrix

cells contained types of molecules that cells produce

Loose Connective Tissue

mainly consists of fibroblast cells that secrete loosely associated collagen fibers. primary function is to support/cushion the epithelia

Dense (Fibrous) Connective Tissue

mainly consists of fibroblast cells that secrete densely connected collagen fibers. primary function is to form tendons

Cartilage

composed of fibroblasts that secrete collagen fibers within a gel-like substance and is often present to act as a cushion between bones

Where is cartilage found?

joins, ears, nose, vertebrae, trachea, etc.

Bone Function

also considered a connective tissue, function in structural support and protection of organs

Bone

contains collagen fibers, embedded within a mineralized substance composed of calcium, magnesium, and phosphate

Osteocytes

provides calcium minerals for building bone in each layer, remain within the bone as new bone is built over top of them

Blood

unique connective tissue in the matrix and many cell types within it

Blood Function

oxygen circulation and immune response

Muscle Tissues

composed of muscle cells (also called muscle fibers)

3 Different Types of Muscle Tissue

skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle

Skeletal Muscle

attached to our bones by tendons and is primarily for voluntary movement

Smooth muscle

surrounds certain organs, functions mostly in involuntary contractions

Cardiac Muscle

specific to the heart, connect to each other via gap junctions to coordinate contractions (heartbeat)

Nervous System

controls voluntary and involuntary contractions

Neuron

nerve cell, primary cell type throughout the nervous system

Nerve Tissue

carries electrical impulses from central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) to the peripheral which controls your voluntary and involuntary muscles

Neurons 3 Main Parts:

1. dendrite

2. cell body

3. axon

Dendrites

receive from other neurons

Cell Body

contains nucleus

Axon

sends signals

Homeostasis

defining feature of living things is the ability to maintain some consistency in their internal environment despite changes in the external environment

What types of factors would be important enough to maintain through homeostasis?

body temperature, blood sugar levels, blood pH, O₂/CO₂ concentrations

Negative Feedback Systems

the most common way that organisms maintain homeostasis, involve sensing a change in the internal environment of the organism. in response, organism produces efforts counteract the change

Positive Feedback Systems

a change in internal environment results in the production of effectors that stimulate increasing change

Thermoregulation

regulation of body temperature

Endotherms

animals that generate and maintain their own body heat

Ecotherms

animals that obtain heat from their envirionment

Hibernation

mammals go inactive in cold months

Water Balance Regulation

many organisms have to maintain the right balance of water and dissolved molecules/ions (solutes)

What organ completes water balance regulation in humans?

the kidney

Nephrons

filtering that takes place in special features of the kidneys

Circulatory System

the heart distributes nutrients through vessels to all cells of the body

Types of Circulatory Systems

1. open circulatory systems

2. closed circulatory systems

Interstitial Fluid

bathes our cells and provides a liquid medium for gas/nutrient diffusion

Blood

contains various cell types suspended in liquid plasma for the transport of gases and nutrients throughout the body

Open Circulatory Systems

no distinction between blood (circulatory fluid) and interstitial fluid (celled hemolymph)

Closed Circulatory Systems

blood is confined to vessels while interstitial fluid is seperate

Three Categories of Vessels in Closed Systems:

1. Arteries (arterioles)

2. Veins (venules)

3. Capillaries

Arteries (Arterioles)

carries blood away from the heart to the rest of the body

Veins (Venules)

carries blood back to the heart

Capillaries

sites where arteries and veins converge AND where gas exchange/nutrient delivery occurs

Cardiovascular System

the combination of the heart and vessels (in vertebrates)

Single Circulation

blood only passes through the heart once per cycle

Double Circulation System

blood passes through the heart twice in one cycle through the body

Pulmonary Circuit

blood is pumped through the ventricle of the heart to the lungs for gas exchange

Systemic Circuit

blood circulates to the rest of the body

Atrioventricular (AV) Valves

control blood flow from atrium to ventricle

Semilunar Valves

present at the exit of each ventricle

Cardiac Cycle

1. diastole

2. systole

Diastole

heart is relaxed, blood fills all chambers, and semilunar valves are closed

Systole

• 1st phase: contraction of the atria (plural of atrium) pushes more blood into ventricles

• 2nd phase: contraction of ventricles pushes blood out of the heart through arteries. AV valves close and semilunar valves open

Sinoatrial (SA) Node

the collection of cardiac muscle cells that generate electrical impulses, “pacemaker,” stimulates atria to contract to push blood into ventricles

Atrioventricular (AV) Node

stimulates the contractions of the ventricles to push blood out of the heart to the pulmonary and systematic circuits

Vagus Nerve

located in the brain, slows heart rate down

Heart Attack (Myocardial Infartion)

result of the death of the heart tissue, often caused by blockages that supply oxygen and nutrients to the heart muscle cells

Strokes

caused by the blockage of blood vessels in the brain, the result is death of the brain tissue. blockages arise when blood clots become stuck in plaques

Plaques

blood clots become stuck in vessels narrowed by fatty deposits

Atherosclerosis

chronic narrowing of the blood vessels due to plaque accumulation

Stent

A way to treat atherosclerosis/blockages by inflating a balloon in an artery with the stent. balloon is then removed to keep expanded stent in place

Gas Exchange

exchange of gases between cells and the atmosphere

3 Phases of Gas Exchanges

1. Breathing

2. transport of gases by the circulatory system

3. exchange of gases with body cells

Ventilation Organs

Gills, tracheal systems, or lungs that perform gas exchange from the surrounding water

Countercurrent Exchange

diffusion of O₂ from water to gills is increased if the water and blood flow are in opposite directions

Tracheal system

little tubes in an insect body where they can get air easily to breathe

Trachea

large opening, brings in O₂ and releases CO₂

Where are the lungs located?

located in the thoracic cavity (chest) protected by rib bones

Abdominal Cavity

holds the digestive organs

Diaphragm

seperation between the thoracic cavity and the abdominal cavity

Trachea

passage way from the nose/mouth, down to the lungs

Alveoli

special structures in the lungs that perform gas exchange

Pharynx

connects nasal and oral cavities to the larynx and then into the esophagus

Larynx

connects nasal/oral cavities to the esophagus but is used for breathing

Epiglottis

Closes down the airways when swallowing so food is not inhaled

Vocal Cords

muscles that vibrate as air passes over them

Trachea

tube composed of cartilage rings

What is the role of the cartilage rings in the trachea?

to make sure that the trachea doesn’t collapse on itself

What kind of epithelium is in the trachea?

Pseudo-stratified, columnar epithelium

Goblet Cells

produce mucus to lubricate the airway and trap allergens and pathogens

Cilia

little hair-like structures that catch things and help move goblet cells