anth 1220 - week 6, subsistence

Subsistence system

Set of practices used by a society to acquire food

Carrying capacity

Number of calories that can be extracted from land to support a population

Thomas Malthus

Believed population grows geometrically while resources grow arithmetically, causing poverty and resource shortages

Positive checks

Malthusian population controls such as war and famine

Preventative checks

Malthusian controls such as delayed marriage, celibacy, prostitution, and birth control

Malthus and evolution

Malthus influenced Darwin’s ideas about competition and survival of the fittest

Ester Boserup

Argued that population pressure encourages innovation and increased food production

Boserup theory

Necessity leads societies to intensify agriculture and adopt labor-intensive food production

Malthus vs Boserup

Malthus predicted limits and crisis while Boserup emphasized innovation and adaptation

Subsistence patterns

Main food acquisition systems used by societies

Small-scale foragers

Small populations relying on wild foods such as the Bushmen

Complex foragers

Groups with abundant resources such as Northwest Coast societies

Food producers

Groups that combine hunting/gathering with small-scale farming

Subsistence farming

Farming mainly for household consumption rather than market sale

Pastoralists

Herders who rely on domesticated animals for subsistence

Extensive agriculture

Low-input farming such as slash-and-burn cultivation

Intensive agriculture

Agriculture requiring significant labor and producing surplus food

Industrial agriculture

Large-scale mechanized farming run by agribusiness

Forager diet

Gathered plant foods usually provide most calories and are diverse and nutrient dense

Forager hunting foods

Mammals, birds, reptiles, insects, eggs, marine animals, and fish

Forager calorie sources

About 80% gathered foods and 20% hunted foods depending on climate

Forager social organization

Small flexible bands with egalitarian decision-making

Gender roles in foragers

Men usually hunt and women gather, though some tasks are shared

Forager equality

Resources are shared because food spoils quickly and hoarding is ineffective

Foragers and mobility

Most foragers are nomadic and move seasonally

Seasonal base camps

Temporary camps used during specific seasons such as among Inuit groups

Decline of foraging

Limited land availability forces many former foragers to purchase food

Domestication causes

Theories include broad spectrum foraging, status competition, and environmental pressures

Multiple strand theory

Domestication influenced by climate, population, environment, technology, and social organization

Megafauna extinction

Loss of large animals led humans to rely more on plants and smaller species

Independent domestication

Plant and animal domestication occurred independently in multiple regions

Neolithic revolution

Transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture

Agriculture consequences

Changes in property ownership, population growth, diet, environment, disease, and labor

Property and farming

Land ownership and permanent housing develop with agriculture

Diet changes with farming

Less varied diets and earlier weaning of children

Height decline

Farming populations experienced reduced average height

Disease and agriculture

Sedentary living and dense populations increased disease spread

Labor and hierarchy

Agriculture increases division of labor and social hierarchy

Horticulture

Small-scale farming using hand tools and simple technology

Horticultural settlements

Sedentary villages often still practicing some foraging

Slash and burn agriculture

Clearing and burning vegetation to fertilize soil with ash

Horticultural land use

Land is farmed then left fallow to restore fertility

Fallow land

Land left unsown temporarily to restore soil nutrients

Horticultural social organization

Gendered division of labor and communal sharing systems

Levelling mechanisms

Social practices that discourage accumulation of wealth

Prestige feasts

Wealthy individuals gain status by hosting community events

Pastoralism

Subsistence system centered on herding domesticated animals

Pastoralist diet

Milk, butter, cheese, blood, and sometimes meat

Pastoralist mobility

Nomadic movement to find grazing areas

Pastoralist gender roles

Men herd animals while women handle domestic tasks

Transhumance

Seasonal movement of livestock between grazing areas

Pastoralists and environment

Responsible grazing can maintain biodiversity

Intensive agriculture

Labor-intensive farming producing high yields

Origins of intensive agriculture

Developed in several regions including Mesopotamia, China, and Mesoamerica

Chinampas

Floating garden agricultural system used by the Aztecs

Intensive agriculture societies

Large populations with complex political and economic systems

Social hierarchy in farming societies

Includes nobility, peasants, merchants, artisans, and religious leaders

Agricultural surplus

Allows occupational specialization beyond farming

Staple crops

Rice, maize, wheat, barley, sorghum, and millet

Rice domestication

Rice was domesticated about 9000 years ago in China

Industrial agriculture

Food production based on mechanization, chemicals, and large-scale farms

Industrial revolution in agriculture

Steam engines and machinery transformed food production

Green Revolution

Agricultural modernization increasing yields through technology and chemicals

Monoculture

Growing a single crop over large areas, increasing pest vulnerability

Industrial farming technology

Tractors, gasoline engines, fertilizers, and pesticides

CAFOs

Confined Animal Feeding Operations used to maximize livestock production

Industrial food labor

Agriculture often relies on low-paid migrant or undocumented workers

Food transport distance

Fresh produce often travels about 2500 km before consumption

Processed foods

Cheap and abundant but often less nutritious

Industrial agriculture pollution

Animal waste and chemicals contaminate air, water, and soil

Manure lagoons

Large waste storage systems that release harmful gases and pollutants

Pesticide exposure effects

Short-term symptoms include dizziness, headaches, and skin irritation

Long-term pesticide effects

Respiratory illness, memory disorders, miscarriages, birth defects, and cancer

Environmental justice

Farmworkers and undocumented laborers are most affected by agricultural pollution