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Evolution
change over time
Replicators
things that make copies of themselves
2 Properties of replicators to have evolution
1.Reproduction with inheritance - offspring that are similar to parents
2.Mutation - give you some variation
Differential Reproduction or selection
Different rates of reproduction due to natural, sexual and artificial selection.
Natural Selection
Differential survival leading to different reproduction rates
Sexual Selection
Differential mating success
Artificial Selection
Humans breeding animals
ex. wolves turned into dogs
Survival vs. Reproduction
For evolution reproduction is more important than survival. (only need to survive long enough to reproduce)
Evolution is not progress
Evolution is just change over time
ex. cave fish becoming blind
Evolution is not a developmental process
Evolution of living things on Earth is not analogous to the development of an individual organism
ex. acorn turning into a tree id development…not evolution
Is Evolution a fact or theory?
Evolution is both a fact(observation about the universe) and a theory(an explanation of that fact)
The “for the good of the species” fallacy
Evolution is primary driven by differential survival and reproduction of individual organisms, not species
Adaptationism
the approach that emphasizes how natural selection designs organisms to be well adapted
Phylogenetics
emphasis on the fact that natural selection can only work with what it has (genetics and fossil records)
Phylogenetic constraint/inertia
Emphasis on the limitations set in place based on previous genetics or adaptations
ex.due to the fact that nature can only work with what it has monkeys can’t grow wings
Another word for “jury-rigged contraption”
KLUDGE
Klumsy
Lazy
Ugly
Dumb, but
Good
Enough
Convergent evolution
Different species developing similar or identical traits based on their environments and function
ex. Humingbirds(Americas), Honeyeater(Australia), Sunbird(Africa) all have similar beaks
Vestigal organs
Organs or body parts of an organism that the organism no longer needs for survival and reflect the organisms phylogenetic history.
ex. whale’s pelvises or snake’s hind legs
The vertebrate eye vs. squid eye
Human eye is a well adapted structure but it can be better, squid eyes don’t have a blind spot while vertebrate eyes do.
Problem of novel environment
Evolution happens in specific environments. If you take them out of those environment or change it drastically, organisms wont necessarily adapt
ex. This is why deer keep running in front of cars and birds smashing into windows
EEA
Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness: the environment thats relevant to explaining how an organism evolved
ARE
Adaptively Relevant Environment (another name for the EEA)
Melatonin
Some of our species EEA’s are very ancient and shared with many other species. Humans share the role of melatonin in sleep cycles with a microscopic marine warm which probably originates over 700 million years ago.
Deep Time
We live a short life and existed for a very small time compared to earth and other organisms
Todays environment vs. ancestor environment
Large scale, full of strangers vs. small scale, full of kin
Human ability to detect animals and humans vs. man made objects
What we find easier to spot is partly a result of adaptations that evolved in ancestral environments
Coalitional psychology
The tendency to quickly and easily identify social groups that ourselves and others appear to belong to
Memory confusion protocol
Show statements about coalitional memberships associated with photographs of people of different races in different jerseys. Errors when recalling who said what reveal whether people are sorting based on race or uniform. result: uniform over race
Levels of Explanation
In biology the same adaptation may be explained in multiple ways at different casual distances and time depths
Phylogenetic explanations
(Greatest distance) They focus on the phylogenetic heritage of the organism that made it possible for the adaptation to evolve “the raw materials that selection had to work on”
Ultimate or Distal explanations
(2nd farthest) They focus on the selection pressures that favored the evolution of adaptation
Ontogenetic or Developmental explanations
(2nd closest) They focus on how the adaptation develops in the individual organism whether before birth, after birth or both
Proximate explanations
(Closest) They focus on how the adaptation works in the moment. Such adaptations are often referred to as proximate mechanisms
Relationship between evolution, culture, and human behavior
Human behavior is formed by both evolution and culture
Hume’s “ought” vs. “is” statement
You can’t derive and “ought” statement from an “is” statement
Naturalistic fallacy
Those who morally justify behavior on the grounds that they are evolved or natural are committing the naturalistic fallacy.
Ex. “Child negligence is okay because certain evolutionary factors can explain it”
Behavior genetics or behavioral genetics
Identify specific genes that are associated with specific behaviors (one approach to studying behavior)
Twin Studies
Study twins that were raised apart and those raised together and compare.
Ex. Identical twins separated at birth still end up mostly having the same political views
Flaw in behavior genetics
Can say interesting things about behavioral differences between individuals but not much about behavioral differences in groups.
Reason: genetic variations among humans are greater among individuals in any single population of humans that they are between human populations.
Somewhat boring exception
Genetic variation and fresh milk consumption in adulthood
Behavioral Ecology
Looking for the ways in which species responses to different environments reveal how the behavior was evolved.(second and main approach of studying behavior)
Three-toed sloths, moths, algae - Mutualism
Sloths descend once a week to defecate
Species of moth that lives in sloths fur lay eggs in the feces
Eggs grow up and find new sloths to live in
Moths increase amount of nitrogen in the sloths fur allowing algae to grow
Sloths eat the green algae that grows on the sloths hair which has tiny holes to store water.
Genetic drift
A change in the population’s genetic pool by chance (founder effect, bottleneck effect)
Founder Effect
Small portion of a population with similar distinctive traits found a new colony and pass down their distinctive traits to their offspring
Ex. 200 red heads out of a diverse population go populate a new island and make more redheads. Even though the original population had many different hair colors this new island will mostly only have red hair.
Bottleneck effect
A catastrophe shrinks a population and only certain traits survive, therefore, those traits get passed down
Darwin’s Natural Selection
Organisms with some heritable variant leave more offspring because those traits help to survive and reproduce
Darwin’s Sexual Selection
Organisms with traits that help them acquire a mate and therefore reproduce get passed on even if they have nothing to do with survival
Modern Synthesis
Combination of Darwin’s theories and particular inheritance
Particular inheritance
Qualities of the parents are not blended together but passed on to their offspring in distinct packets called genes
Gene
Smallest discrete unit that is inherited intact/without being blended or smashed
Genotype
Collection of genes within an individual. The offspring gets ½ of fathers and ½ of mothers genotype making up their own full genotype.
Ethology
The study of the proximate mechanisms and adaptive value of animal behavior. (First major discipline of the study of evolution and behavior)
Tinbergen’s 4 Whys (4 focuses of ethology)
Immediate influences on behavior
Developmental influences on behavior
The function of the behavior, the “adaptive purpose”
The evolutionary or phylogenetic origins of behavior
Fixed action patterns
Stereotypical behavioral sequences an animal follows after being triggered by a well-defined stimulus
Ex. Male plastic duck forces female duck to start acting courteous
Adaptation defined by Williams
Evolved solutions to specific problems that contribute either directly or indirectly to successful reproduction
Textbook Misconception #1: Human behavior is genetically determined
Human behavior cannot occur without both evolved adaptations AND environmental input that triggers these adaptations
Ex.calluses evolved and repeated frictions activate them
Textbook Misconception #2: If it is evolutionary we cannot change it
Knowledge of certain environmental activations allows humans to not active certain adaptations
Ex.Humans can avoid hard friction surfaces and avoid activating calluses
Textbook Misconception #3: Current Mechanisms Are Optimally Designed
Again the concept of KLUDGE proves it wrong
3 products of evolution
adaptations, by-products, noise(random effects)
Adaptations
Inherited and reliably developing characteristics that came into existence through natural selection because they help with survival and reproduction
ex. umbilical cord
By-products
Characteristics that do not solve adaptive problems and do not have functional designs but are carried along with those that do.
ex. belly button
Noise
Random effects produced by forces such as chance mutations, sudden and unprecedented changes in the environment or chance effects during development.
ex.particular shape of a person’s belly button
Standards for evaluating a hypothesized adaptation
efficiency - solving a problem in a proficient manner
economy - solving a problem in a cost effective manner
precision - all the component parts specialized for achieving a particular end
reliability - performing dependably in the contexts in which it is designed to operate
General Evolutionary Theory (EP levels of analysis)
How evolution happens?
ex. Evolution by Natural Selection
Middle-level evolutionary theories (EP levels of analysis)
Broad theories covering domains of function
ex. Theory of Parental Investment and Sexual Selection
Specific Evolutionary Hypothesis (EP levels of analysis)
Hypothesis based off theory or that has to do with the theory
ex. Where males sometimes contribute resources to offspring, females will select mates in part based on their ability and willingness to contribute resources
Specific predictions based off hypothesis (EP levels of analysis)
Exactly what the name says
ex. Women have evolved preferences for, and attraction to, men who are high in status
Deduction
Top-Down strategy for generating and testing hypothesis
develop hypothesis from existing theory
test predictions based on hypothesis(experiment)
evaluate whether empirical results confirm prediction
Induction
Bottom - Up strategy for generating and testing hypothesis
create hypothesis based off an observation
test prediction based on hypothesis(experiment)
evaluate whether empirical results confirm prediction
Evolved Psychological Mechanism
Set of processes inside a mechanism with the following properties
solves a specific problem of survival or reproduction
takes in only a narrow slice of information
the input tells the organism the particular adaptive problem its facing
the input is transferred through decision rules or procedures into outputs
the output is either a physiological activity, information to another psychological mechanism or manifest behavior
the output is directed toward the solution to a specific adaptive problem
Domain specific vs. domain general
Domain specific are specific psychological adaptations for specific problems.
Domain general categorizes these solutions into broader sections made in order to solve non-recurrent problems for the species(ex. general intelligence, analytical reasoning, working memory and classical conditioning).
Learning and culture as evolved mechanisms
Framework for evolved psychological mechanisms
environments featuring recurrent selection pressure over deep time formed each mechanism
environmental input during a person’s development is necessary for the emergence of the mechanism
environmental input is necessary for the activation of the mechanism
Each concept we learn requires an evolved psychological mechanism.