Roman Empire, Christianity, and Early Islam: Key Figures and Events

Marc Antony

A Roman general and member of the Second Triumvirate who allied with Cleopatra; defeated by Octavian at the Battle of Actium in 31 B.C.

Cleopatra VII

The last Ptolemaic queen of Egypt; politically and romantically allied with Marc Antony; defeated by Octavian.

Battle of Actium (31 B.C.)

A naval battle where Octavian defeated Antony and Cleopatra; marked the end of the Roman Republic.

Paterfamilias

The male head of a Roman family with legal authority over all household members.

Octavian / Caesar Augustus

Rome's first emperor; ruled 27 B.C.-14 A.D.; ended civil wars and began the Pax Romana.

Augustus' military reforms

Created a professional standing army, established veteran colonies, and placed soldiers under emperor's loyalty instead of generals.

Augustus' social reforms

Promoted traditional Roman morals, encouraged marriage/childbearing, penalized adultery, and reformed tax and admin systems.

Princeps Civitatis

Means 'first citizen'; Augustus' preferred title to avoid appearing like a king or dictator.

Virgil, The Aeneid

Epic poem written during Augustus's reign; glorifies Rome's origins and supports Augustus's rule.

Pax Romana

Period of Roman peace and prosperity (27 B.C.-180 A.D.) that began under Augustus.

SPQR (Senatus Populusque Romanus)

'The Senate and People of Rome,' symbolizing republican tradition and Roman authority.

The Julio-Claudians (c. 14-68 A.D.)

Dynasty after Augustus: Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero.

Nero (last Julio-Claudian emperor)

Ruled 54-68 A.D.; known for tyranny, extravagance, persecution of Christians, and political instability.

The Flavians (69-96 A.D.)

Dynasty of Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian who restored stability after Nero's death.

Conquest of Jerusalem (70 A.D.)

Roman destruction of the Second Temple under Titus; led to the Jewish diaspora (scattering of Jews outside Judea).

The 'Five Good Emperors' (96-180 A.D.)

Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius; known for competent, stable rule.

Nerva

First 'Good Emperor,' ruled 96-98 A.D.; adopted successors based on merit.

Marcus Aurelius (161-180 A.D.)

Philosopher-emperor and last of the Five Good Emperors; wrote Meditations; his death ended Pax Romana.

Commodus (180-192 A.D.)

Marcus Aurelius's son; irresponsible and violent ruler; his reign begins Rome's decline.

Barracks Emperors

3rd-century rulers chosen by the army; frequent assassinations and instability.

Crisis of the Third Century (235-284 A.D.)

Period of civil war, invasions, economic collapse, and rapid emperor turnover.

Diocletian

Emperor (284-305 A.D.) who ended the crisis through reforms and established the tetrarchy.

Dominus

Means 'lord/master'; title Diocletian used, marking the shift to a more authoritarian monarchy.

Tetrarchy

Diocletian's system dividing the empire into four rulers: two Augusti and two Caesars.

Constantine

First Christian Roman emperor; legalized Christianity and promoted church unity.

Licinius

Co-emperor in the East; initially supported Christian tolerance but was defeated and executed by Constantine in 324.

Battle of the Milvian Bridge (312 A.D.)

Constantine won after allegedly having a divine Christian vision; began his support of Christianity.

Edict of Toleration (311 A.D.)

Issued by Galerius; ended persecutions and allowed Christians to practice.

Edict of Milan (313 A.D.)

Issued by Constantine and Licinius; granted full religious freedom and restored Christian property.

Constantinople

New capital founded by Constantine in 330 A.D.; center of Eastern Christianity.

Bishops

Christian leaders who governed major church communities; successors to the apostles.

Pagan

Non-Christian polytheistic religions of the Greco-Roman world.

Council of Nicaea (325 A.D.) / Nicene Creed

First ecumenical council; declared Jesus divine and equal to the Father; condemned Arianism.

Gospel of Matthew / Sermon on the Mount

The Gospel emphasizes Jesus as the new Moses; Sermon on the Mount teaches ethics like humility, mercy, and love.

Paul's Letter to the Romans

Explains salvation through faith, universal sinfulness, and Christian ethics.

Arius / Arianism

A priest who taught Jesus was created and not fully divine; condemned at Nicaea.

Theodosius (379-395 A.D.)

Made Christianity the official religion of the empire and banned pagan worship.

Islam

Monotheistic religion founded by Muhammad; means 'submission' to God.

Muslim

A follower of Islam; one who submits to God.

Ismaelites

Early term used by outsiders for Arabs; linked to Ishmael, son of Abraham.

Yemen

Southern Arabian region where trade routes and early Arab kingdoms flourished.

Abu Talib

Muhammad's uncle and protector; leader of the Quraysh clan.

Muhammad

Founding prophet of Islam (570-632 A.D.); received revelations that became the Qur'an.

Bedouins

Nomadic Arab tribes; valued loyalty, honor, and kinship; early context of Islamic society.

Umma

The unified Muslim community; transcends tribal divisions.

Qur'an

Islam's holy book; revelations given to Muhammad.

'People of the Book' (dhimmis)

Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians; protected but taxed under Muslim rule.

Jihad

'Struggle'; internal spiritual effort or, in some cases, armed defense of the faith.

Ka'ba (haram)

Sacred shrine in Mecca; houses the Black Stone; focal point of pilgrimage.

Mecca

Muhammad's birthplace and site of the Ka'ba; center of early revelations.

Meccan Surahs ('The Opening' & 'The Coursers')

Early Qur'anic chapters focusing on monotheism, moral behavior, and judgment.

Medina

City Muhammad fled to in 622; birthplace of the Muslim community's political power.

Medinan Surahs (Surah 3 - 'The House of Imran')

Revelations focusing on community law, warfare ethics, and social order.

Hadith

Sayings/actions of Muhammad; a major source of Islamic law.

Imam Nawawi, Gardens of the Righteous

A famous collection of hadiths organized by themes of ethics and behavior.

Hijra (622 A.D.)

Muhammad's migration from Mecca to Medina; YEAR 1 of the Islamic calendar.

Al-mu'minun (believers)

Term for early Muslim faithful.

Amir al-mu'minin

'Commander of the Believers'; later evolved into the title caliph.

The Rashidun Caliphs

The four 'Rightly Guided' leaders after Muhammad.

• Abu Bakr

• Umar

• Uthman

• Ali

Abu Bakr

First caliph; unified Arabia; compiled Qur'an.

Umar

Expanded empire into Syria, Egypt, Persia.

Uthman

Standardized Qur'an; assassinated.

Ali

Muhammad's cousin/son-in-law; civil war during his rule.

Mu'awiya

Governor of Syria; founded the Umayyad Dynasty after Ali's death.

Shi'a (Shi'ites)

Believe leadership should descend from Ali's family.

Sunnis (Sunna)

Majority; believe leadership should follow Muhammad's example, not bloodline.

The Umayyad Dynasty (661-750)

Ruled from Damascus; expanded empire from Spain to India.

Damascus

Capital of Umayyad Caliphate.

Five Pillars of Islam

Shahada - declaration of faith; Salah - prayer 5x daily; Zakat - almsgiving; Sawm - fasting in Ramadan; Hajj - pilgrimage to Mecca.