Political Identity, Movements, and Regimes: Key Concepts and Examples

Political identity

Def: An orientation about oneself and one's community in relation to others and in terms of politics. Can translate to membership in a political party, but most broadly encompasses a person's membership in a group that holds a set of political beliefs.

Sig: Political identity is a basis for mass mobilization and the creation of a social movement, but more generally any form of collective action.

Ex: Membership in a political party or nationalism (cognitive boundary → imagined community)

Primordialism

Def: Views identity as psychically embedded, spontaneous, and inflexible, both in the way they exist within someone and how they predictably translate to political views.

Sig: Feeds into ethnic nationalism in the sense that it promotes an identity that is predetermined and unchanging. Therefore national origin is important

Ex: Putin's rationale for starting the war in Ukraine had primordialist roots. He viewed the people of Ukraine and Russia as having a common origin that goes back a thousand years. Ukraine, in Putin's view, was artificially constructed by political elites and needed to be returned to Russia.

Constructivism

Def: Views identity as malleable, a rational choice, and based on social context. There is also a specific focus on a class of 'elites' that mobilize people's identity through media, propaganda, and other appeals.

Sig: Promotes civic nationalism because it points to identity beyond the basic understanding of where you are from to the idea that identity can be a set of values: socially constructed.

Ex: Viewing Ukrainian national identity as distinct and a product of a complicated history. This identity has been further accelerated and mobilized by the conflict with Russia

Gender gap

Def: The gender gap refers to how men and women vote differently.

Sig: As discussed in the Htun reading, the relatively small gender gap points to how gender is cross-cutting and different than ethnicity

Ex: Historically women have voted more conservatively, yet now they have swung left

Reserved Seats

Def: Seats reserved in parliament for minority groups. Reserved seats make the most sense when there are overlapping identities.

Sig: Attempts to quell ethnic tensions in a country by giving each group a voice. Increases state stability.

Ex: India has 543 seats reserved in the lower parliament for women through the Women's Reservation Bill (one-third of seats for women in the Lok Sabha). Rwanda and Iraq also employ reserved seats in parliament.

Party candidate quotas

Def: Formal or informal mandate to put forth a certain number of candidates who are women.

Sig: Increase in state stability. Mobilizes more women to vote

Ex: France instituted a law that required 50% of party candidates to be women. If parties did not follow the law they would be fined.

Populism (left-wing, neoliberal, radical right)

Def: A thin centered ideology which advocates the sovereign rule of the people as a homogeneous body. Populism is combined with other ideologies to give it content.

Sig: Tool for mass mobilization especially when motivated by a scapegoat. Also revolutionary power.

Ex: Nigel Farage's Reform UK party has leveraged immigration as a populist issue to mobilize leaving the EU. Reform UK has exploded in the polls recently.

Political violence

Def: The use of force by groups or individuals outside of the state to achieve political objectives. Both structural: economic social, and individual: religion, ideology, emotion

Sig: Destabilize state

Ex: Revolution (China, Iran, etc.)

Revolution

Def: Public mobilization to seize control of the apparatus of power and enact regime change through inherently violent means. Structural factors: economic, social, and state stability. Ideological element, typically centered around one charismatic leader.

Sig: Revolutions lay the groundwork for future states. They typically centralize power leading to strong states and security apparatuses. Social revolutions change social fabric as well.

Ex: Iranian Revolution, China

Terrorism

Def: The threat/use of violence by non-state actors often done against civilians.

Sig: Destabilizes a state

Ex: Hamas

Westminster model

Def: Set of institutions and ways of governance defined by parliamentary sovereignty (main decision making body), lack of checks and balances (no real secondary body, no significant Supreme Court like the US), single-member-district electoral system, and mostly a two-party system

Sig: Leads to powerful governments and rapid policy change. Influence governments abroad. Origin bicameral system

Ex: Influenced India's system of government

Labour Party

Def: The Labour Party grew directly out of the labor movement and is a moderate leftist party. One of the two dominating parties in England

Sig: Comments from Ford article, something about how they shifted public focus on immigration and were therein able to withstand/counter the 'Stop the Boats' movement

Ex: In response to Thatcher, Tony Blair creates New Labour which lets the voting block move back toward center on economic issues and combines markets with social justice. Known as the Third Way between left and right; winning formula for New Labour who hold power from 1997 to 2010

Conservative Party(tories)

Def: One of the two major political parties in England. Typical conservative party, advocates for tighter immigration controls and the free market.

Sig: The party voting base is made up of privileged capitalist with some working class support. This cross cutting allowed for Collectivist Consensus, creating socialized medicine and the welfare state known as the NHS.

Ex: Thatcher reforms tories around neoliberalism in 80s, freeing up markets from the state with deregulation and privatization and gained enormous electoral success from economic turn around

Reform UK

Def: A far-right populist party (elites vs. people). Critiques globalism, the EU, and immigration.

Sig: Reflects the ability of populism and scapegoating to mobilize people. Additionally, made the conservatives pay attention to the Brexit issue by functioning as a single issue party.

Ex: Made Brexit an issue by changing public opinion and eventually forced the conservatives to take a harder Brexit stance and execute the UK's departure from the EU

Brexit

Def: The United Kingdom leaving the European Union over concerns of sovereignty (control of borders: both from the EU and other countries) and promises of economic growth

Sig: Illustrates the power of Reform UK or a populist agenda to shift public opinion

Ex: Reform UK pushed this policy

Fifth Republic

Def: Overseen by Charles De Gaulle, incorporated semi presidentialism to limit fragmentation and polarization and let the French public express a diverse scope of views. Also helped create two party blocks for stability.

Sig: Codifies and cements the idea of laicite into French society

Ex: Current political system of France today: republicanism.

Semi-presidentialism

Def: Consists of a powerful elected president on top of an already existing parliamentary system that chooses a Prime Minister, oversees the selection of a cabinet, can call referendums, and manages foreign affairs.

Sig: Powerful executive. Limit fragmentation and polarization. Let french public express a diverse scope of views.

Ex: Macron as president.

Republicanism

Def: An anti-monarchical structure where the state guarantees unity and equality. Divide between citizens and the state. Emphasis on civic nationalism and a rejection of identity.

Sig: Debate within the country about republicanism (especially laicite) and religion. Chabal article regarding identity politics

Ex: France (fifth republic) is a state which attempts to embody the ideal of republicanism.

Marine Le Pen

Def: Current leader of the National Front party in France (right-wing).

Sig: Changes perception of National Front party, less fringe

Ex: woiman

Emmanuel Macron

Def: Current president of France

Sig: Instituted fuel taxes that angered the populace and fueled anti-climate change rhetoric.

Ex: Macron raised taxes on fuel which were severely unpopular and led to mass protests on infringement of civil liberties. Yellow vest protest

Triple transition

Def: When the Soviet Union collapsed Russia had to transition geographically, no longer being as large of a country and being far more decentralized under a federal system, economically, reinstating capitalism, and politically, dismantling dictatorship.

Sig: Traumatic transition leads to destabilizing conditions leading to Putin and dictatorship.

Ex: I can't think of an example because it's an example of itself.

Vladimir Putin

Def: Current autocratic leader in Russia.

Sig: Putin seen as architect of tremendous economic recovery in the 2000s after turbulent 90s, a time of high commodity prices that Putin capitalized on; natural gas and oil. Through this he was able to consolidate power in political capitalist fashion.

Ex: As discussed in the Zygar article, Putin's war on woke

Personalist Autocracy

Def: An authoritarian regime centered around a charismatic and singular figure. This leader has control over the direction of the state.

Sig: consequence of revolution

Ex: Xi Jinping's China

Mao Zedong

Def: Leader of the 1949 revolution with ideology of Maoism, seeing the revolutionary potential of the peasantry to form a Communist Party in China and continue a permanent revolution.

Sig: Created the modern state of China and modern culture through the Cultural Revolution and rapid modernization through the great leap forward, which killed 30 million through famine.

Ex: Led Cultural Revolution and Great Leap Forward

Deng Xiaoping

Def: Rehabilitated technocrat who led a series of economic reforms in China in the 1970s and 80s. Reduced the totalizing power of the Communist party (give people more space). Reform the communist party itself: red capitalists

Sig: Changing China (see def)

Ex: Decentralizing power from the party chairman

Xi Jinping

Def: Xi Jinping is the current leader of China, who has individualized and centralized control around himself after a period of reform.

Sig: Reversed the reforms implemented by Xiaoping. By doing so, altered the course of China, ending term limits for presidents. Also created a cult of personality similar to that of Mao.

Ex: Centralized power as compared to Deng, eliminated term limits.

Chinese Communist Party

Def: Ruling part of China

Sig: Chinese party is responsive without being responsible; responsiveness to societal problems with no accountability to the public if they are displeased with response

Ex: Example of a party state

Party-state

Def: Parallel set of state and party institutions. The party is the state and is dominant. Highly centralized and reaches deep into society (totalizing).

Sig: The role of the party-state was the primary difference between Xi Jinping and Deng Xiaoping. Xiaoping wanted to loosen its grip while Xi Jinping wants to continually make it more leninist (totalizing).

Ex: China

Cultural Revolution

Def: Period from 1966-76 that reignited the class struggle and attempted to build revolutionary fervor to humiliate and denounce any kinds of elites that held bourgeois views. The goal was to bring in younger generations through the Red Guard.

Sig: Laid the foundation for modern China by furthering Mao's cult of personality, mobilizing the public behind ideological fervor, and further consolidating power in the hands of the party.

Ex: Do some work for your self for once idk

Mohandas Gandhi

Def: Non-violent resistance leader who built a broad-based political movement around India centered on democracy and anti-imperial (Britain) sentiment.

Sig: Laid the foundations for India's democracy and brought about India's independence

Ex: Reshaped the Congress party, more broad based

Congress Party

Def: Founded in 1885, the Congress Party was the foundation of independence in 1947. It was a patronage party as a way to incorporate people into democracy. It is a vast party with many internalized divisions.

Sig: Established civic nationalism in India, changed by BJP

Ex:

BJP (Hindu nationalism)

Def: Hindu nationalist party under the leadership of Narendra Modi which has maintained control over Indian politics since 1990s

Sig: Shifted Indian politics away from cross-cutting Gandhi towards a more ethnonationalist approach

Ex:

Narendra Modi

Def: Prime minister of India, Modi is an authoritarian leader with a my way or the high personality that is reflected in political opinions. He is a charismatic leader and fills stadiums globally with Indian diaspora.

Sig: Shifted Indian politics away from cross-cutting Gandhi towards a more ethnonationalist approach

Ex:

Second Republic

Def: BJP in power → an increase in electoral democracy with a simultaneous decrease in liberal democracy (emphasis on women). Change in norms and the exercise of power: centralization of power, repudiation of secular norms, increase in welfare benefits (clientelist relationship), understanding of national identity in ethnic terms, "Civilization State."

Sig: Shift away from Congress party secularism towards a majoritarian ethnic understanding of the state.

Ex: India is now trying to define itself as a Civilization state, arguing that it is a nation state while also a very old civilization that has not disappeared

1917 Constitution

Def: Result of the 1910 revolution. Enshrined liberal institutions and a commitment to social rights. Creates an interventionist state and with the rise of the PRI, essentially a one party state

Sig: Foundation for Mexican politics ever since

Ex:

PRI

Def: Dominant political party from 1929-2000 that operated as an electoral machine, functioning on clientelism. The party did not really have a programmatic ideology rather they focused on preserving power. Overall co-opted social groups to maintain power.

Sig: Significant because it demonstrated how autocracies typically have thin centered ideologies, more focused on power.

Ex: Mexican Miracle

AMLO:

Def: Swept into power after failed governments post PRI. Wave of populism, railing against elites. Expanded welfare benefits and was very critical of the drug war.

Sig: Utilized populism to mobilize a lot of people. Aguiar: the dangers of populism undermining democratic institutions

Ex: Leftwing populism

Gender quotas

Def: Requirement that women fill a certain number of government positions from judges to state governments. Congress and the Senate were the initial focus. Also mandates for the number of candidates. Eventually, parity in everything

Sig: Piscopo article → result of women mobilization. How social movements can bring about real change.

Ex:

Claudia Sheinbaum

Def: Current and first female president of Mexico. The handpicked successor of AMLO.

Sig: Rise of women in politics in Mexico. Shows confidence in the electoral power of left-wing populist parties. Continued decline of democracy (Aguiar) + Women's issues (Piscopo).

Ex: Discussed in the Aguiar as the continuation of AMLO's undemocratic reforms. She supports the election of judges

Biafra

Def: Region in southern Nigeria that is home to Nigeria's oil reserves.

Sig: Consequence of resource curse

Ex:

Resource curse

Def: The idea that being resource rich is a barrier to modernization and democracy

Sig: Oil rev takes over, currency gets expensive, country loses its ability to compete on other goods which makes the economy reliant on international oil markets, where fluctuation poses danger to the economy. Seeming increase of growth at beginning of oil revenue extraction, however stagnation sets in due to lack of diverse exports.

Ex: Nigeria

Federal Character principle

Def: Institutional mechanism that attempts to manage ethnic divisions within Nigeria. Institutes ethnic group quotas for all levels of government (Federal cabinet, military, civil service, etc.)

Sig: Tool to manage ethnic divisions within the country. Increases state legitimacy and stability.

Ex:

2023 Presidential elections

Def: Increased number of parties and support for them. 3 candidates for president hold around 20% of the vote

Sig: No longer a north-south division, rather a division across disparate parties.

Ex:

Youthquake

Def: Subsaharan Africa has the world's youngest population.

Sig: Economic consequences. Signals demand for change and frustration with corruption

Ex: Just dont pick this one if its an ID

Guardian Council

Def: The council consists of 6 clerics and 6 jurors who review legislation and apply veto and review candidates for office.

Sig: Stabilizes religious standards in Iran while stepping on democratic institutions. Also exemplifies the theocracy in Iran.

Ex: Reflects 1906 institutions in practice and in the same tensions as back them with dem institutions as it is ruled by religiously learned.

Revolutionary Guard(IRGC)

Def: A paramilitary organization parallel to the actual military that reports directly to the supreme leader (Ayatollah).

Sig: Signals how powerful a revolution can be in consolidating power and forming a security apparatus

Ex: The IRGC exists to prevent another coup like the one in 1954 from happening again. They also control 25% of the nation's GDP, providing a strong incentive to keep the regime in place and never relinquish power.

Basij (Jina) Amini protest movement

Def: Mahsa Amini dies in Morality Police custody after being arrested for incorrectly wearing hijab, which catalyzed mass movement of discontent at restrictions on behavior. It was brutally repressed. RESPONSE: 2023 Hijab bill.

Sig: Showed how the repressive regime faces constant resistance through remnants of democratic institutions and in strength of Iranian civil society. The regular mass protests have been played in large part by women as well. Mobilized women + building into a larger movement...

Ex: Part of the larger women's movement in Iran which is considered the strongest in the Middle East