Learning and Physical Development

Cognitive Maps

Mental representations of the layout of an environment that allow organisms to navigate and plan routes.

Classical Conditioning

A learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally produces a response.

Acquisition

The initial stage of learning when a conditioned response is established through repeated pairings of stimuli.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without learning.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

An unlearned, automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the UCS, triggers a learned response.

Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

Extinction

The weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest.

Stimulus Generalization

Responding similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus.

Stimulus Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal the unconditioned stimulus.

Higher-Order Conditioning

A form of conditioning in which a new neutral stimulus becomes associated with an already established conditioned stimulus.

Social Learning Theory

The theory that learning occurs through observing and imitating others.

Observational Learning

Learning by watching the behavior of others.

Vicarious Learning

Learning by observing the consequences of others' actions.

Modeling

The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

Insight Learning

Sudden problem solving that occurs without trial and error.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without reinforcement and is not immediately demonstrated.

Taste Aversions

Learned avoidance of foods after they are paired with illness or nausea.

Biological Preparedness

An inherited tendency to learn certain associations more easily than others.

Habituation

A decreased response to a repeated, harmless stimulus.

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is shaped by consequences such as rewards or punishments.

Law of Effect

The principle that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are more likely to be repeated.

Reinforcement vs. Punishment

Reinforcement increases behavior, while punishment decreases behavior.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behavior.

Positive Punishment

Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Negative Punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Primary Reinforcers

Innately satisfying stimuli that fulfill biological needs.

Secondary Reinforcers

Learned reinforcers that gain value through association with primary reinforcers.

Shaping

Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior.

Instinctive Drift

The tendency for learned behaviors to revert to innate patterns.

Learned Helplessness

A condition in which individuals stop trying after repeated failure to control outcomes.

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs.

Fixed Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement after a set number of responses.

Variable Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed Interval Schedule

Reinforcement after a set amount of time has passed.

Variable Interval Schedule

Reinforcement after varying amounts of time.

Longitudinal Studies

Research that follows the same participants over a long period of time.

Cross-Sectional Studies

Research that compares different age groups at one point in time.

Teratogens

Harmful agents that can damage a developing fetus.

Fine Motor Movement

Small, precise movements involving hands and fingers.

Gross Motor Movement

Large movements involving arms, legs, and the body.

Physical Development

Changes in body structure and functioning over the lifespan.

Maturation

Biologically programmed growth processes that occur naturally over time.

Rooting

An infant reflex involving turning toward a touch on the cheek.

Critical Periods

Specific times during development when experiences have a strong effect.

Puberty

The period of sexual maturation when reproductive capability is reached.

Overall Physical Decline Later in Life

Age-related decreases in mobility, flexibility, reaction time, and sensory acuity.