French/Napoleonic wars

Problem of recruitment

• France had system of conscription - able to muster hundreds of thousands of men

• GB couldn’t match this

• 1793- 40k men, 250k by 1815

• GB’s regular soldiers were volunteers

• finding the requisite manpower difficult due to harsh discipline and low pay

Army officers/ purchase system

• most officers from landed gentry as rich fathers had bought their son an ensign ‘s commission.

• Promotions were then bought as vacancies appeared

• Wealth more important than talent

• Commissions couldn’t be bought in the Royal Artillery or the Royal Engineers

• Duke of York Reforms: aimed to ensure officers served 2 years before they could be captains and 6 years become a major

• Many officers led effectively and couragesly, e.g. Wellesley

Army’s composition

• 3 branches: artillery, cavalry and infantry

• 1808: GB had 20 cavalry regiments, with some comprising of 900 men. Yet, some regiments on campaign rarely mustered more than 650

• 1808: 103 infantry regiments, mostly composed of 2 battalions. While one battalion abroad, the other remained at home. First battalion had approximately 950 men: disease and casualties meant battalions often went into battle with 550.

• Infantry’s main weapon: Brown Bess Musket, only accurate up to 100yds. Experienced soldiers rarely fired more than 3 shots a minute.

• In defensive battle, infantry stood in a line typically two ranks deep.

• Whereas, the FR attacked in columns: often 170 men wide and 24 ranks deep, allowing for greater shock and momentum in assaults. Yet, only the first 2 ranks could fire and columns could rarely break through a GB line.

French Revolutionary war 1793-1802

• main GB effort against FR possessions in the Carribean

• 1798: GB forces had captured several French, Spanish and Dutch islands

• 40k soldiers died of disease, including yellow fever.

British success in India

• In 1797, Arthur Wellesley sent on military duty there

• Brother Richard followed arrived in Calcutta as Governor General in 1798

• 1803: war broke out with the Mahratta Confederacy.

• September: Wellesley and 7k men attacked 40k strong Indian army at Assaye, winning major victory

• Later triumphed at Argaum

Napoleonic War 1803-9

• GB forces set about re-capturing colonies handed to France via the treaty of Amiens (1802) - not fully successful

• efforts to capture SP colonies in S.America failed (1807)

• 1809: 44,000 strong-force dispatched to capture Flushing and Antwerp.

• 4k died of disease in Walcheren before army forced to return to Britain.

Early Peninsular War battles (1808-9)

• 1808: SP and PT rose in revolt against FR rule

• Wellesley commanded 15k strong army sent to PT

• defeated French at Vimeiro: FR lost 2k, GB 720.

• Later replaced by Dalyrymple, who was later dismissed after agreeing FR soldiers in PT to be transported back to FR on GB ships with loot - controversial armistice

• October 1808: Sir John Moore (new commander in PT) marched into SP hoping to cooperate with SP in expelling the FR

• November: Napoleon invaded SP with 200k-strong force and crushed the Spanish

• Moore’s army retreats to Corunna, where it fought FR pursuers 16 January 1809: Moore killed but battle allowed 26k GB troops to escape

Wellesley returns

• April 1809: given command of GB and PT forces in Portugal

• within a few weeks - drove FR troops from Oporto

• July: Wellesley’s 20k-strong army crossed into Spain

• 27-28 July: defeated 50k-strong FR army at Talavera

• forced to retreat to Portugal, where he remained on defensive

• Became Viscount Wellington

Massena’s invasion of Portugal

• 1810: Marshal Massena advanced into PT with 65k men

• Wellington fought successful defensive battle at Busaco on the 27th September, before retreating to Lisbon. Massena followed.

• Mid-October: reached Torres Vedras lines. Network of formidable lines ordered to be constructed by Wellington in 1809.

• Massena eventually forced to retreat into Spain in March 1811, having lost 25k men.

• PT virtually free from French control

The War (1811-14)

• May 1811: Wellington repelled two attacks on Fuentes de Onoro

• Early 1812: GB forces captured Badajoz and Ciudad Rodrigo, key Spanish fortresses.

• 22 July 1812: Wellington won key battle at Salamanca, entering Madrid in triumph

• Reached Burgos mid-September, but FR armies threatened his rear, forcing a retreat to PT

• 21 June 1813: Wellington defeated 66k strong FR army at Vitoria.

• July: won series of battles in the Pyrenees

• November: army crossed into France and pressed Northwards

• April 1814: Prussian, Russian and Austrian forces entered Paris

• Napoleon abdicates and exiled to island of Elba.

Reasons for British success

• Wellington’s leadership = vital, never lost a battle

• British forces were well-trained and supplied, and they effectively utilized local knowledge and alliances with Portuguese and Spanish forces.

• GB army surpassed FR in every way beside numbers

• SP and PT soldiers fought well under British command

• Royal Navy conveyed supplies and transported troops

• SP and PT people’s stubborn resistance to FR rule = important

Battle of Waterloo

• 1815: Napoleon returned from exile and re-established authority

• Alliance powers (Russia, Prussia, Austria, GB) declared war on FR immediately

• Napoleon advances northwards with 120k men hoping to annihilate allied army in Belgium - British army led by Wellington and Prussians by Blucher.

• 16th June: Napoleon defeats Prussians at Ligny

• GB and FR forces fought drawn battle at Quatre Bras before regrouping.

• Napoleon marched against Wellington - believed Prussians had been crushed

• Wellington positioned army on low ridge near Waterloo

• 18 June: Napoleon attacked but GB army held firm

• Prussians began arriving - Napoleon defeated

• Wellington: 15k casualties; Blucher: 7k casualties; and Napoleon: 25k casualties.

Naval warfare in late 18th century

• ships made up of wood and dependent on sails for movement

• Ships of the line: carried more than 70 guns and crews of hundreds of men.

• Frigates: fewer guns and men, faster. In continual action, patrolling, scouting or conveying merchantmen.

• Navy’s strength based on discipline and teamwork - esp. ability to fire guns swiftly and effectively.

Blockade

From 1793, navy blockaded enemy ports in hope of preventing ships getting out to sea. Two methods used:

• close blockade: main fleet sailed near to enemy port

• open blockade: main fleet in home port or miles away at sea, while frigates patrolled enemy ports, informing main fleet if enemy put to sea.

Naval War (1793-7)

• 1793: Ad. Hood seized Toulon, FR’s main Mediterranean naval base. FR army soon forced him to abandon port.

• Navy also blockaded FR ports on Atlantic coast

• 1794: Lord Howe fought FR fleet escorting grain convoy from the USA

• 1796: Holland and SP changed sides, joining FR - strained the Navy

Glorious 1st June -1794

• British victory - stop grain convoy

• Howe’s fleet captured or sank 7 enemy ships and secured British control over the Atlantic, ensuring vital supplies for Britain.

Battle of Cape St Vincent - 1797

• Ad. Jervis encountered SP fleet almost twice the size of the GB one.

• Nelson and Collingwood helped lead Jervis to an impressive victory.

Naval mutiny

• April 1797: fleet at Spithead refused a command to be put to sea

• Discontent due to pay, food quality and brutal officers

• government agreed to increase wages following petition to the Admiralty

• new mutiny on 7th May led by petty officers, was well-handled by Lord Howe, guaranteeing that the men’s demands would be met.

• 12th May: soldiers at Nore mutinied. More far-reaching demands, e.g. power of veto over officers.

• Nore mutineers joined by North Sea fleet

• GB seemed defenceless for a few weeks

• Gov took steps to isolate and starve mutineers

• Ended mid-June when moderate sailors arrested control from radicals

• 29 mutineers executed

• Discipline appeared to be on verge of collapse

Battle of Camperdown - October 1797

Admiral Duncan's fleet defeated the Dutch, securing British naval supremacy.

Situation in 1797

• Britain’s outlook bleak despite Camperdown

• FR invasion remained serious threat

• large FR army and fleet at Toulon preparing to sail - not sure where.

Battle of the Nile 1798

• Napoleon left Toulon for Egypt with 13 battleships and 280 transports carrying almost 50k men

• Nelson given task of destroying FR fleet

• found FR fleet at mouth of River Nile 1st August

• Both fleets similar in strength- superior GB gunnery devastated the FR - only 2 of their ships remained.

• Navy regained control of the Mediterranean

Battle of Copenhagen -1801

• Ad. Parker commanded a Baltic fleet sent there to deal with potential threat from Denmark’s fleet.

• Nelson second-in-command given task of leading attack on 2nd April

• Nelson sailed into narrow strip of water, lined with Danish warships, gun batteries on rafts and shore forts

• worried at Danish resistance: Parker signalled Nelson to discontinue action

• Nelson ignored signal and forced Crown Prince to agree a truce

• 12 Danish ships captured and 3 sunk

The situation 1803-5

• 1803: Nelson given command of Mediterranean fleet to watch Villenueve’s fleet at Toulon

• 1804: situation deteriorated- FR allies with SP; two countries had 102 battleships, yet the Navy only had 83

• FR invasion serious possibility if Napoleon concentrated ships in English Channel

Napoleon’s plan

• Villenueve evade Nelson, lure him to Caribbean, lose him and sail back to Europe, uniting with other FR and SP fleets.

• Combined fleet enable Napoleon’s army at Boulogne to invade GB,

• April 1805: Villeneuve’s fleet left Toulon. Nelson gave chase with fewer ships.

• Nelson sailed home having failed to catch up with V

• July 1805: GB fleet led by Calder intercepted Villeneuve off Cape Finisterrre. Most of FR fleet escaped, sailing to Cadiz.

• Nelson and Calder’s fleets joined Cornwallis off Brest, lifting invasion threat.

Battle of Trafalgar 1805

• Nelson given command of fleet off Cadiz

• 19th October: Villeneuve left Cadiz for Italy.

• Nelson gave chase with 27 battleships, 17k men and 2148 guns.

• Villeneuve: 33 battleships, 30k men and 2568 guns.

• came to battle on 21st October

• Nelson formed fleet in 2 divisions: one led by Nelson, the other Collingwood.

• columns shattered enemy line, taking 18 enemy battleships.

• Nelson shot by a FR sharpshooter and dies of his wounds

Impact of Trafalgar

• Navy no longer seriously challenged by the FR

• 1807: GB banned trade with any ports complying with Napoleon’s Berlin decrees

• British ships stopped and searched any neutral ship suspected of trading with the enemy.

• Navy transported troops and supplies to Spain and Portugal

• Navy enabled GB to seize French and Dutch colonies

• British frigates terrorised European coastlines, tying down large numbers of enemy troops

• Navy fought Naval war with USA, eventually blockading most American ports.

British economy and industrial growth

• 1783-1802: Britain’s economy grew nearly 6% annually

• cotton production increased threefold (1793-1813)

• iron and steel manufacturing increased fourfold

• increasing importance of steam power: 112 steam engines operating in London by 1805

Agricultural growth

• had to import grain from Europe and North America

• high wartime prices = prosperity for farmers, encouraged investment

• corn output increased by over a fifth between 1790-1810

Commerce and finance

• Britain developed strong financial system in contrast to France’s antiquated and inefficient one, thanks to industrial revolution

• City of London helped fund war

• London financiers, e.g. Rothschild arranged large loans to fund military campaigns and subsidise Britain’s allies, especially Russia and Austria.

• National debt over a billion by 1815.

British trade

• overseas trade vital: large proportion of gov. income from customs duties

• Cotton textiles: worth six times as much by 1815.

• exports of manufactured goods increased

• trade flourished due to new markets in S.America and the Carribean, despite Continental system

• 1810-12, trade declined

• Poor harvests and USA war = economic gloom

• Napoleon’s defeat in Russia led continental system to collapse

East India Company

• exported lots of goods to India and Southeast Asia

• Brought back vital materials, e.g. saltpetre for gunpowder

• ships chartered to transport troops abroad

Military production

• gov had own military establishments, producing warships and weapons

• state ordnance yards and dockyards lacked capacity to achieve levels of production

• privately owned shipyards, foundries and factories working on gov. contracts built up more ships and manufactured more weapons than the state.

• manufacturing and mining industry thriving by 1815 and shipyards busy.

role of the navy

• enabled GB to escape invasion

• and protect trade routes, contributing to maritime dominance, expanded them also

• maritime supremacy

role of the army

• performed well - quite small

• never defeated under Wellington

British governments

• parliamentary system better at waging war than Napoleon

• 1793-1815: 6 PMs, seven SoS War, 10 Foreign Sec, 10 1st Lord Ad.

• not all talented, some able wartime leaders, e.g. Pitt the Younger, Perceval and Lord Liverpool.

• Tory party supported war, many Whigs favoured appeasing FR and making peace

Funding war

• 21 goods and services newly taxed during war, e.g. windows and dogs

• 1799, graduated income tax introduced

• before 1793: 18m/yr in taxes

• additional 12m on average extracted every year 1793-1815

Popular support for the war

• gov, churches and local authorities did their best to maintain support for war effort

• forms of propaganda used: sermons, posters, newspapers, pamphlets. reached those who already supported war effort

• Most Britons supported war due to prospect of FR invasion

• wealthier classes prepared to fund the war effort via higher taxes, while the working class often felt the economic strain of wartime taxes and inflation.

• working class willing to join - no conscription necessary

Lines of Torres Vedras

• constructed by Wellington in secret in 1809

• 20-30 mi north of Lisbon

• 3 defensive rings

• 26 mi northern-most line from Atlantic to river Tagus: linked forts and earthworks covering passes to Lisbon

• Navy protected Atlantic Flank

Glorious 1st June

• nelson wasn't present

• lost 1200 men

• Blockade

• Britain captured six prizes and sank one ship

• used in propaganda due to failures at Flanders

• nelson in process of blockading Corsica in the Mediterranean at the time

Cape St Vincent - 14th Feb 1797

• Nelson in command of HMS captain

• disobeyed orders, broke from line and into Spanish fleet

• engaged 3 enemy ships including Santisma Trinidad a 130 gun frigate

• one of Jervis's commanders

• Spain trying to link with French for possible British invasion

• outnumbered with 27 versus 15 ships meaning Britain initially had upper hand

• drove through Spanish ships: seized the initiative to block the enemy, HMS Captain to stop them getting too rear of GB Fleet

• coppering meant it could withstand it as well as carronades

• San Josef and San Nicolas got tangled together: Nelson ordered ship alongside Joseph captured Josef using it to board Nicholas In what became known as the bridge of battleships

Battle of the Nile - August 1798

• Nelson In command of HMS Vanguard

• British fleet caught French one at anchor and with sails unfurled in the Nile, while Napoleon and his army were there

• British fleet crippled French and left Napoleon stranded

• french flagship L’Orient exploded at 10:00 PM

• crew through more combustible material and its gunpowder papers exploded

• took place at Aboukir bay in the estuary

• Two fleets cited each other late afternoon and French assumed British would not attack because it was late

• nelson ordered Immediate attack and used lanterns so they could see

• approach Very simple as the British went alongside the French fleet and fought

Trafalgar

• Save Britain from invasion

• Naval supremacy enhanced empire strategy: protects colonies, capture enemy colony colonies, protect GB merchant fleet and trade routes

• hindered Napoleon's continental system and allowed Royal Navy to seize French and Dutch colonies from all over the world

• minimise worry of Napoleon's land colonies at Austerlitz und Ulm as long as Britain could fund coalition allies

• The Royal Navy annihilated the greatest threat to Britain and her world position since Drake defeated the Spanish Armada

• Nelson died on his flagship HMS victory, giving the battle an air of special magic, creating a good like figure for the British people to worship and establish and established a naval precedent under legend in great British history

• guaranteed British control of the oceans and a unique global power that would endure over a century

• Helped Britain survive war with France as successor Trafalgar nullified the real threat of invasion and ensured France could not destroy Britain's rich global commerce system it ensured Britain British trade and Empire could safely prosper and expand, creating wealth and allowing Britain to fund her continental allies, boosting trade and ending threat to shipping

• Britain never gave up the conflict, never allowed Napoleon to the opportunity to consolidate his power and rebuild the continent in his own image

• Even Hitler perceived Nelson’s column as the Symbol of British naval my and world domination, and was keen to display in Berlin if his invasion plans proved more successful than Napoleons.

Nelson

• Joined Royal Navy at 13 due to his patronage by his maternal uncle

• was captain of a frigate by 21 but career stalled until the outbreak of war with France in 1793 when he was given command of the 60 four gun battleship HMS Agamemnon

• appointed as captain of HMS captain in 1797 in which he broke from the line at the Battle of Cape St Vincent to secure his reputation of a courageous, daring, arguably hot headed, impetuous naval officer and leader of men

Weaponry

• Carnage obliterated masts

• coppering fast made chips faster and more manoeuvrable

• chain shot: two lead balls on a chain fired out of carnage, taking down the enemy sail

• canister shot: brakes when gun is fired

Why was Britain involved in a continental war with revolutionary France?

• Geopolitical and military all out: Austrian Empire (Led by Mary Antoinette's brother Emperor Leopold the second) Started war.

• French Republic declared war on Austria and Prussia in 1792

• Austrian Netherlands and Antwerp port annexed by France and British interests directly threatened

• British reacted and insisted France's withdrawal from Holland

• france refused and declared war on dutch and Britain

• Treaty of Amiens brought end of Revolutionary Wars

• worries of spread of ideas to UK regarding Republic

• French invaded Egypt, with intention of getting to India

Coalition warfare and importance

• Conflict including the cooperation of multiple countries on the same side in a war effort when they are not part of a military alliance, including Britain, Austria and Russia in the second coalition.

• It was difficult for Britain to invade as it didn't have strong army on land. It is also an island meat, meaning it doesn't have easy access to continental Europe, unlike other countries, such as Austria and Spain

how did Britain afford coalition warfare?

• Britain's second most urbanised country in Europe

• more modern economy

• fast developing under industrial revolution, which transformed manufacturing and working life

• managing national debt: borrowing and selling stocks through Bank of England

• income tax established from 1798

• agriculture transformed

• new markets in expanding empire

• stable financial systems to back war effort

Why was coalition warfare successful?

• Britain's financial strength enabled it to fund it with allies such as Austria and Prussia

• it gave 50 million pound allies including 4.6 million to Austria

• allied with countries on continental Europe, meaning they could attack France from their borders and in some cases surround France such as within the sixth coalition

• it could use other countries and resources and well trained soldiers

Primary roles of the navy

• protect GB from invasion

• Economic blockade of enemy seaborne trade

• Engage enemy wherever and whenever

Nations involved in the French War

France, Belgium, Spain, Turkey, USA, Denmark and Russia

life at sea

• much of life there

• Wives of skilled seamen (carpenters, riggers, gunners, cooks) often accompanied their husbands

• Diet very important: Fresh meat and veg for 6 weeks until supplies exhausted and then salted meat and bread from grain supplies

• Hard work and harsh discipline

• Sailors away from home for lengthy periods, even years

• Inspired by opportunity of prize money

Navy’s secondary roles

• command colonial water and capture enemy colonies

• Protect GB merchant fleet

• Expand navy via prize system

• Transportation of troops and comms.

class hierarchy in the Navy

• maintained order and discipline

• Officers typically middle class/ lower aristocracy, recruited via patronage

• Young boys get authority from social class

• Artisans and skilled workers were often part of the crew, serving under officers.

• Most seamen joined to escape poverty and prison. Navy life provided 3 meals and discipline

ships nelson commanded

• initially 6th rate frigates and 3rd rate

• Commanded HMS victory into Trafalgar and commanded flagship of 22 ships - his was a 104-gun first rate battleship

why didn’t the navy have many first rate ships?

• very expensive to build and maintain

• Frustrated ships required 800 men and there were issues with recruitment

• they were the slowest and third rates were preferable for speed

• easier to destroy as they were larger

What were smaller ships used for?

• Transportation and communications useful for attacking unarmed enemy merchant ships

• 1809: used 144 fifth rates and 251 sloops

importance of naval expenditure at war

• Extra cost covers new ships needed

• primary amount of government expenditure on Navy as it was the Britain’s first defence

• during war: income tax first introduced

Reasons for fluctuating expenditure

• 1802: Decrease in expenditure due to peacetime

• 1803: Increase in expenditure as Britain prepared for renewed conflict against France.

• Economic pressures and military needs influenced naval funding, leading to fluctuations based on peace or war.

• 1805: Increasing threat, with 14m in naval supplies due to impending threat of Trafalgar

• 1812: USA declared war on GB

why did the First Lord of the Admiralty sit on the British War Cabinet?

• Royal Navy is the biggest employer in the world

• some are admirals: risen through ranks and have expertise

• navy central to development of the Empire which was expanding at the time

why were there different First Lords?

• Lot of change in PMs during French wars and they could choose their own men

• traditionally seen as stepping stone in a political career.

• Henry Dundas later became PM.

Blockade

Navy blockaded entire French and Spanish coast, as well as Netherlands as its controlled by France

Corsica

Island owned by France. Repeated attempts to capture it as it would give Royal Navy a base on doorstep of France

Cape St Vincent

Battle between Britain and Spain off the coast of Spain.

Battle of the Nile

Great success for Nelson is Britain annihilated the French fleet

Copenhagen

Cortana talk to Danish fleet against orders. Copenhagen was a big port and Napoleon tried to gain control of Danish fleet

Trafalgar

A pivotal naval battle in 1805 where Admiral Nelson led the British fleet to a decisive victory against the combined French and Spanish fleets, ensuring British naval supremacy. Great victory against Spanish and French force. Nelson dies.

Glorious 1st June 1794

• Admiral Lord Howe, 25 ships of the line

• Admiral Villaret Joyeuse, 26 ships of line

• Not involving Nelson, first major victory

• Britain defined naval convention by ordering fleets towards France

Glorious 1st June - reasons

• Stop French exporting grain from USA to France

• capture as many French ships as possible

• blockade Britain to get grain into France

Glorious 1st June - outcome

• Grain reached breast, averted famine in France

• captured 6 prizes and sank one french ship

• british fleet lost 1200 men but no ships

• great British victory
  1794: army losing every battle so the government called it glorious propaganda reasons

Cape St Vincent 1797

• Nelson Captain of HMS captain. 3rd rate with 74 guns

• admiral was Sir John Jervis and had 15 ships of the line

• admiral Ramos With twenty five ships of the line

Cape St Vincent - reasons

• Spanish allied with France and Royal Navy blockading port of Cadiz

• nelson disobeyed orders, broke from line and headed into Spanish fleet

• spanish plan to meet French at Brest for merchant convoy

• captured Spanish ship when another came alongside immediately also capturing it

• used cannons of all 3 ships to get rid of largest ship Santisma Trinidad

Cape St Vincent - reasons

• Big victory for British

• made Nelson famous and cemented his reputation

• Nelson and crew managed to capture two other ships made rear admiral because of exploits in this battle. Able to command a small flee of ships

• Spanish: 4 ships of line captured, 250 killed with 3800 casualties
  British: no ships, 73 killed and 300 casualties

Santa Cruz de Tenerife 22-5 July 1797

• Nelson: 4000 sailors, 3 ships of line and 400 guns

• Santayana: 1700 sailors, 91 guns

Tenerife - reasons

• Very daring attempt to capture Tenerife

• important role of Navy was to capture enemy colonies

• amphibious covering both land and Sea

• took place at fortress

Tenerife - outcome

• Failure

• Nelson lost right arm from Musket ball

• Britain: 250 dead, 128 wounded, 300 captured

• Spain: 30 dead, 40 wounded

Battle of the Nile 1-2 August 1798

• Nelson in command of HMS Vanguard, Fourteen ships of the line

• Bruey d’Algallierd, 13 ships of line

Nile - reasons

• Order to find Napoleon and has intelligence that he was in the Mediterranean

• finds French fleet at anchor in River Nile while Napoleon and his army were in Egypt

• only a third of the crew were there

• Fought all night
  French flagship L’Orient exploded at 10:00 o'clock and a cannonball hit the gunpowder compartment

Nile - outcome

• Britishly crippled French and left Napoleon standard in Egypt with his army

• British: 218 killed, 677 wounded - 900 casualties

• French: 2-8k casualties, 2 ships of line destroyed, 9 captured

Battle of Copenhagen 2 April 1801

• Parker and Nelson, 12 ships of line , five frigates

• Fischer and Bille, 9 ships of line, 11 sloops, 17 others

Copenhagen - reasons

• Blow some disregarded orders and refuse to withdraw

• engaged Danish Fleet at Anchor in Copenhagen

• port damaged Danish fleet to ensure it was unfit to be subsumed into the French fleet

Copenhagen - outcome

• Nelson awarded with a peerage for his action at Copenhagen

• 3 Danish ships sunk and 12 captured - six ships of the line were captured

• 1600 Danish killed, wounded or captured

Battle of Trafalgar- 21 October 1805

• Nelson, 27 battleships, 17k men and 2148 guns

• Villeneuve, 33 battleships, 30k men and 2568 guns

Trafalgar - reasons

• 19th October: Villeneuve left Cadiz for Italy

• Lawson had commanded fleet of Cadiz and gave chase.

• Spanish ships to join Villeneuve's fleet, aiming to break the British blockade and support French operations in the Mediterranean.

Trafalgar - outcome

• Two columns shattered enemy line and won massive victory

• Britain take 18 enemy battleships

• nelson shot by French sharpshooter and dies of his wounds

• 458 killed including Nelson twenty one French and Spanish ships captured and one destroyed 4395 killed

Nelson - leadership style

• Great leader of men and adored battle scorned as he'd lost an eye and arm

• led from the front

• band of Brothers: invited all captains to have dinner with him night before battle and briefed them

• nelson touch: encapsulated genius Of tactics, leadership and personal personal qualities including crossing the T

Nelson - battles fought

• USA war independence as captain of HMS Albemarle

• cape St Vincent as captain of HMS Agamemnon

• HMS captain at Santa Cruz de Tenerife

• HMS Vanguard at the battle of the Nile

• Copenhagen

• Trafalgar

Nelson- tactics in battle

• raking

• Crossing the T: Going straight for enemy

• Bridge of battleships

• Split the fleet into two lines at Trafalgar

Nelson - impact and legacy

• Most important figure for the Navy

• Trafalgar Square immortalises him and his battle forever

• dying in In the battle led his men to immortalise him and created his legend

Role of Navy post-Trafalgar

• Protect trade and merchant fleets

• protect British Empire

• blockade trade ports

• maintain naval supremacy

Reasons for British success at sea 1793-1815

• Effective close range gun owner with muscle loading cannons primarily using solid iron balls

• Carronades killed enemy men and destroyed masts using chain shop cannons - Britain were the only nation to have these

• Highly trained men and strong recruitment they had typically lower death tolls

• great leadership from Nelson and his captains inspired the men

• hulls of British ships had coppering making them faster and more manoeuvrable

The Nelson touch

• a naval tactic emphasizing aggressive action and bold leadership, inspired by Admiral Nelson's strategies during battles. This approach focused on decisive engagement and the element of surprise, often leading to significant victories for the British Navy.

• Nelson's idea was to quickly bring about a melee in which, due to superior gunnery, the British would have a distinct advantage.

• Nelson planned to divide his fleet into three sections.^[a] The largest part would engage closely with one section of the enemy's fleet crushing it with greater numbers. The other ships, sailing in two columns, would cut the enemy line and prevent them from coming to the aid of their comrades. The enemy fleet could then be destroyed by concentrating firepower and exploiting weaknesses in the enemy's formation.

• Creating trust amongst his officers was crucial to Nelson. It allowed him to rely on simple strategies rather than complicated battle plans, certain in the knowledge that his subordinates would support one another in achieving the overall objective and be confident enough to use their own initiative when required

Britain’s return to Copenhagen in 1807

• 25000 vs 10000 danish troops

• 3000 danish casualties vs. 42 British deaths and 145 wounded.

• The British forces aimed to capture Copenhagen and its naval assets, leading to significant military engagement and ultimately establishing control over the Danish fleet.

• Entire Danish fleet surrendered

• Bombardment using congreve rockets

Walcheren in 1809

• British expeditionary force of 39,000 troops, together with field artillery and two siege trains, crossed the North Sea and landed at Walcheren on 30 July.

• but heavy losses from the sickness popularly dubbed "Walcheren Fever". Although more than 4,000 British troops died during the expedition, only 106 were killed in action

• the survivors withdrew on 9 December. Defending Franco-Dutch forces also suffered heavy casualties, including 4,000 men dead, wounded or captured

• Over 12000 British fell ill, 5000 dutch and French ill

War in the USA- 1812

• the United States declared war on Britain on 18 June 1812.

• This conflict arose from ongoing tensions over trade restrictions, impressment of American sailors, and British support for Native American attacks on American frontier settlements. The war resulted in several significant battles and ultimately solidified American independence.

• Britain had 48000 troops by end of war, 11 ships of line, 34 frigates

• USA: 35800 troops, and 22 ships of line.

• 2700 Britons killed in action or from disease compared to 7400 US deaths

Flanders campaign 1792-5

• Duke of York, 2nd son of George III; 200 000 troops

• Philippe and de Custine

The Flanders campaign - reasons

• French revolution radicalised and fears it could spread to elsewhere in Europe

• first coalition mobilised military forces on all French borders with intention of invading France and restoring the monarchy

• Austria and Prussia threatened to intervene if French Royals harmed

• Britain increasingly worried about security of united provinces

• wanted to bully new Republic into submission to secure British interests

Flanders campaign - outcome

• humiliating defeat for the British and their allies, leading to a retreat and the eventual stabilization of French control over the region.

• 1794: harsh winter with rampant disease

• no coordination, lack of planning and leadership, no chance of winning and withdrew as it’s too late

• allies abandoned low countries

• French victory

• retreated to Bremen and ordered to return to Britain by Pitt: less than 6k British soldiers evacuated

• over 200k men killed in 2 years

Duke of York as Commander of British Army

• took place of Lord Amherst in 1795

• army struggled with: sudden growth, lack of professionalism - sudden outbreak of war, old units reformed and 30 new regiments created

• instilled more professionalism via standard drills and a new military college - 1795 reforms

• improved rations and barracks

Helder Campaign - 27th August-19th November

• Duke of York, 40k men

• Brune, 25k men, 7000 casualties, 25 ships lost

Helder Campaign - reasons

• to support the Dutch against French control, protect British trade routes, and counter French expansion in Europe.

• expeditionary force of British and Russian troops invaded North Holland peninsular

• objectives: neutralise Batavian fleet and encourage uprising by followers of William V against Batavian Gov.

• expected Republic to collapse due to Dutch moving to the side of Britain

• part of the 2nd coalition during war with revolutionary France

• joint venture between Britain and Russia to open second front in Holland and restore House of Orange