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Problem of recruitment
France had system of conscription - able to muster hundreds of thousands of men
GB couldn’t match this
1793- 40k men, 250k by 1815
GB’s regular soldiers were volunteers
finding the requisite manpower difficult due to harsh discipline and low pay
Army officers/ purchase system
most officers from landed gentry as rich fathers had bought their son an ensign ‘s commission.
Promotions were then bought as vacancies appeared
Wealth more important than talent
Commissions couldn’t be bought in the Royal Artillery or the Royal Engineers
Duke of York Reforms: aimed to ensure officers served 2 years before they could be captains and 6 years become a major
Many officers led effectively and couragesly, e.g. Wellesley
Army’s composition
3 branches: artillery, cavalry and infantry
1808: GB had 20 cavalry regiments, with some comprising of 900 men. Yet, some regiments on campaign rarely mustered more than 650
1808: 103 infantry regiments, mostly composed of 2 battalions. While one battalion abroad, the other remained at home. First battalion had approximately 950 men: disease and casualties meant battalions often went into battle with 550.
Infantry’s main weapon: Brown Bess Musket, only accurate up to 100yds. Experienced soldiers rarely fired more than 3 shots a minute.
In defensive battle, infantry stood in a line typically two ranks deep.
Whereas, the FR attacked in columns: often 170 men wide and 24 ranks deep, allowing for greater shock and momentum in assaults. Yet, only the first 2 ranks could fire and columns could rarely break through a GB line.
French Revolutionary war 1793-1802
main GB effort against FR possessions in the Carribean
1798: GB forces had captured several French, Spanish and Dutch islands
40k soldiers died of disease, including yellow fever.
British success in India
In 1797, Arthur Wellesley sent on military duty there
Brother Richard followed arrived in Calcutta as Governor General in 1798
1803: war broke out with the Mahratta Confederacy.
September: Wellesley and 7k men attacked 40k strong Indian army at Assaye, winning major victory
Later triumphed at Argaum
Napoleonic War 1803-9
GB forces set about re-capturing colonies handed to France via the treaty of Amiens (1802) - not fully successful
efforts to capture SP colonies in S.America failed (1807)
1809: 44,000 strong-force dispatched to capture Flushing and Antwerp.
4k died of disease in Walcheren before army forced to return to Britain.
Early Peninsular War battles (1808-9)
1808: SP and PT rose in revolt against FR rule
Wellesley commanded 15k strong army sent to PT
defeated French at Vimeiro: FR lost 2k, GB 720.
Later replaced by Dalyrymple, who was later dismissed after agreeing FR soldiers in PT to be transported back to FR on GB ships with loot - controversial armistice
October 1808: Sir John Moore (new commander in PT) marched into SP hoping to cooperate with SP in expelling the FR
November: Napoleon invaded SP with 200k-strong force and crushed the Spanish
Moore’s army retreats to Corunna, where it fought FR pursuers 16 January 1809: Moore killed but battle allowed 26k GB troops to escape
Wellesley returns
April 1809: given command of GB and PT forces in Portugal
within a few weeks - drove FR troops from Oporto
July: Wellesley’s 20k-strong army crossed into Spain
27-28 July: defeated 50k-strong FR army at Talavera
forced to retreat to Portugal, where he remained on defensive
Became Viscount Wellington
Massena’s invasion of Portugal
1810: Marshal Massena advanced into PT with 65k men
Wellington fought successful defensive battle at Busaco on the 27th September, before retreating to Lisbon. Massena followed.
Mid-October: reached Torres Vedras lines. Network of formidable lines ordered to be constructed by Wellington in 1809.
Massena eventually forced to retreat into Spain in March 1811, having lost 25k men.
PT virtually free from French control
The War (1811-14)
May 1811: Wellington repelled two attacks on Fuentes de Onoro
Early 1812: GB forces captured Badajoz and Ciudad Rodrigo, key Spanish fortresses.
22 July 1812: Wellington won key battle at Salamanca, entering Madrid in triumph
Reached Burgos mid-September, but FR armies threatened his rear, forcing a retreat to PT
21 June 1813: Wellington defeated 66k strong FR army at Vitoria.
July: won series of battles in the Pyrenees
November: army crossed into France and pressed Northwards
April 1814: Prussian, Russian and Austrian forces entered Paris
Napoleon abdicates and exiled to island of Elba.
Reasons for British success
Wellington’s leadership = vital, never lost a battle
British forces were well-trained and supplied, and they effectively utilized local knowledge and alliances with Portuguese and Spanish forces.
GB army surpassed FR in every way beside numbers
SP and PT soldiers fought well under British command
Royal Navy conveyed supplies and transported troops
SP and PT people’s stubborn resistance to FR rule = important
Battle of Waterloo
1815: Napoleon returned from exile and re-established authority
Alliance powers (Russia, Prussia, Austria, GB) declared war on FR immediately
Napoleon advances northwards with 120k men hoping to annihilate allied army in Belgium - British army led by Wellington and Prussians by Blucher.
16th June: Napoleon defeats Prussians at Ligny
GB and FR forces fought drawn battle at Quatre Bras before regrouping.
Napoleon marched against Wellington - believed Prussians had been crushed
Wellington positioned army on low ridge near Waterloo
18 June: Napoleon attacked but GB army held firm
Prussians began arriving - Napoleon defeated
Wellington: 15k casualties; Blucher: 7k casualties; and Napoleon: 25k casualties.
Naval warfare in late 18th century
ships made up of wood and dependent on sails for movement
Ships of the line: carried more than 70 guns and crews of hundreds of men.
Frigates: fewer guns and men, faster. In continual action, patrolling, scouting or conveying merchantmen.
Navy’s strength based on discipline and teamwork - esp. ability to fire guns swiftly and effectively.
Blockade
From 1793, navy blockaded enemy ports in hope of preventing ships getting out to sea. Two methods used:
close blockade: main fleet sailed near to enemy port
open blockade: main fleet in home port or miles away at sea, while frigates patrolled enemy ports, informing main fleet if enemy put to sea.
Naval War (1793-7)
1793: Ad. Hood seized Toulon, FR’s main Mediterranean naval base. FR army soon forced him to abandon port.
Navy also blockaded FR ports on Atlantic coast
1794: Lord Howe fought FR fleet escorting grain convoy from the USA
1796: Holland and SP changed sides, joining FR - strained the Navy
Glorious 1st June -1794
British victory - stop grain convoy
Howe’s fleet captured or sank 7 enemy ships and secured British control over the Atlantic, ensuring vital supplies for Britain.
Battle of Cape St Vincent - 1797
Ad. Jervis encountered SP fleet almost twice the size of the GB one.
Nelson and Collingwood helped lead Jervis to an impressive victory.
Naval mutiny
April 1797: fleet at Spithead refused a command to be put to sea
Discontent due to pay, food quality and brutal officers
government agreed to increase wages following petition to the Admiralty
new mutiny on 7th May led by petty officers, was well-handled by Lord Howe, guaranteeing that the men’s demands would be met.
12th May: soldiers at Nore mutinied. More far-reaching demands, e.g. power of veto over officers.
Nore mutineers joined by North Sea fleet
GB seemed defenceless for a few weeks
Gov took steps to isolate and starve mutineers
Ended mid-June when moderate sailors arrested control from radicals
29 mutineers executed
Discipline appeared to be on verge of collapse
Battle of Camperdown - October 1797
Admiral Duncan's fleet defeated the Dutch, securing British naval supremacy.
Situation in 1797
Britain’s outlook bleak despite Camperdown
FR invasion remained serious threat
large FR army and fleet at Toulon preparing to sail - not sure where.
Battle of the Nile 1798
Napoleon left Toulon for Egypt with 13 battleships and 280 transports carrying almost 50k men
Nelson given task of destroying FR fleet
found FR fleet at mouth of River Nile 1st August
Both fleets similar in strength- superior GB gunnery devastated the FR - only 2 of their ships remained.
Navy regained control of the Mediterranean
Battle of Copenhagen -1801
Ad. Parker commanded a Baltic fleet sent there to deal with potential threat from Denmark’s fleet.
Nelson second-in-command given task of leading attack on 2nd April
Nelson sailed into narrow strip of water, lined with Danish warships, gun batteries on rafts and shore forts
worried at Danish resistance: Parker signalled Nelson to discontinue action
Nelson ignored signal and forced Crown Prince to agree a truce
12 Danish ships captured and 3 sunk
The situation 1803-5
1803: Nelson given command of Mediterranean fleet to watch Villenueve’s fleet at Toulon
1804: situation deteriorated- FR allies with SP; two countries had 102 battleships, yet the Navy only had 83
FR invasion serious possibility if Napoleon concentrated ships in English Channel
Napoleon’s plan
Villenueve evade Nelson, lure him to Caribbean, lose him and sail back to Europe, uniting with other FR and SP fleets.
Combined fleet enable Napoleon’s army at Boulogne to invade GB,
April 1805: Villeneuve’s fleet left Toulon. Nelson gave chase with fewer ships.
Nelson sailed home having failed to catch up with V
July 1805: GB fleet led by Calder intercepted Villeneuve off Cape Finisterrre. Most of FR fleet escaped, sailing to Cadiz.
Nelson and Calder’s fleets joined Cornwallis off Brest, lifting invasion threat.
Battle of Trafalgar 1805
Nelson given command of fleet off Cadiz
19th October: Villeneuve left Cadiz for Italy.
Nelson gave chase with 27 battleships, 17k men and 2148 guns.
Villeneuve: 33 battleships, 30k men and 2568 guns.
came to battle on 21st October
Nelson formed fleet in 2 divisions: one led by Nelson, the other Collingwood.
columns shattered enemy line, taking 18 enemy battleships.
Nelson shot by a FR sharpshooter and dies of his wounds
Impact of Trafalgar
Navy no longer seriously challenged by the FR
1807: GB banned trade with any ports complying with Napoleon’s Berlin decrees
British ships stopped and searched any neutral ship suspected of trading with the enemy.
Navy transported troops and supplies to Spain and Portugal
Navy enabled GB to seize French and Dutch colonies
British frigates terrorised European coastlines, tying down large numbers of enemy troops
Navy fought Naval war with USA, eventually blockading most American ports.
British economy and industrial growth
1783-1802: Britain’s economy grew nearly 6% annually
cotton production increased threefold (1793-1813)
iron and steel manufacturing increased fourfold
increasing importance of steam power: 112 steam engines operating in London by 1805
Agricultural growth
had to import grain from Europe and North America
high wartime prices = prosperity for farmers, encouraged investment
corn output increased by over a fifth between 1790-1810
Commerce and finance
Britain developed strong financial system in contrast to France’s antiquated and inefficient one, thanks to industrial revolution
City of London helped fund war
London financiers, e.g. Rothschild arranged large loans to fund military campaigns and subsidise Britain’s allies, especially Russia and Austria.
National debt over a billion by 1815.
British trade
overseas trade vital: large proportion of gov. income from customs duties
Cotton textiles: worth six times as much by 1815.
exports of manufactured goods increased
trade flourished due to new markets in S.America and the Carribean, despite Continental system
1810-12, trade declined
Poor harvests and USA war = economic gloom
Napoleon’s defeat in Russia led continental system to collapse
East India Company
exported lots of goods to India and Southeast Asia
Brought back vital materials, e.g. saltpetre for gunpowder
ships chartered to transport troops abroad
Military production
gov had own military establishments, producing warships and weapons
state ordnance yards and dockyards lacked capacity to achieve levels of production
privately owned shipyards, foundries and factories working on gov. contracts built up more ships and manufactured more weapons than the state.
manufacturing and mining industry thriving by 1815 and shipyards busy.
role of the navy
enabled GB to escape invasion
and protect trade routes, contributing to maritime dominance, expanded them also
maritime supremacy
role of the army
performed well - quite small
never defeated under Wellington
British governments
parliamentary system better at waging war than Napoleon
1793-1815: 6 PMs, seven SoS War, 10 Foreign Sec, 10 1st Lord Ad.
not all talented, some able wartime leaders, e.g. Pitt the Younger, Perceval and Lord Liverpool.
Tory party supported war, many Whigs favoured appeasing FR and making peace
Funding war
21 goods and services newly taxed during war, e.g. windows and dogs
1799, graduated income tax introduced
before 1793: 18m/yr in taxes
additional 12m on average extracted every year 1793-1815
Popular support for the war
gov, churches and local authorities did their best to maintain support for war effort
forms of propaganda used: sermons, posters, newspapers, pamphlets. reached those who already supported war effort
Most Britons supported war due to prospect of FR invasion
wealthier classes prepared to fund the war effort via higher taxes, while the working class often felt the economic strain of wartime taxes and inflation.
working class willing to join - no conscription necessary
Lines of Torres Vedras
constructed by Wellington in secret in 1809
20-30 mi north of Lisbon
3 defensive rings
26 mi northern-most line from Atlantic to river Tagus: linked forts and earthworks covering passes to Lisbon
Navy protected Atlantic Flank
Glorious 1st June
nelson wasn't present
lost 1200 men
Blockade
Britain captured six prizes and sank one ship
used in propaganda due to failures at Flanders
nelson in process of blockading Corsica in the Mediterranean at the time
Cape St Vincent - 14th Feb 1797
Nelson in command of HMS captain
disobeyed orders, broke from line and into Spanish fleet
engaged 3 enemy ships including Santisma Trinidad a 130 gun frigate
one of Jervis's commanders
Spain trying to link with French for possible British invasion
outnumbered with 27 versus 15 ships meaning Britain initially had upper hand
drove through Spanish ships: seized the initiative to block the enemy, HMS Captain to stop them getting too rear of GB Fleet
coppering meant it could withstand it as well as carronades
San Josef and San Nicolas got tangled together: Nelson ordered ship alongside Joseph captured Josef using it to board Nicholas In what became known as the bridge of battleships
Battle of the Nile - August 1798
Nelson In command of HMS Vanguard
British fleet caught French one at anchor and with sails unfurled in the Nile, while Napoleon and his army were there
British fleet crippled French and left Napoleon stranded
french flagship L’Orient exploded at 10:00 PM
crew through more combustible material and its gunpowder papers exploded
took place at Aboukir bay in the estuary
Two fleets cited each other late afternoon and French assumed British would not attack because it was late
nelson ordered Immediate attack and used lanterns so they could see
approach Very simple as the British went alongside the French fleet and fought
Trafalgar
Save Britain from invasion
Naval supremacy enhanced empire strategy: protects colonies, capture enemy colony colonies, protect GB merchant fleet and trade routes
hindered Napoleon's continental system and allowed Royal Navy to seize French and Dutch colonies from all over the world
minimise worry of Napoleon's land colonies at Austerlitz und Ulm as long as Britain could fund coalition allies
The Royal Navy annihilated the greatest threat to Britain and her world position since Drake defeated the Spanish Armada
Nelson died on his flagship HMS victory, giving the battle an air of special magic, creating a good like figure for the British people to worship and establish and established a naval precedent under legend in great British history
guaranteed British control of the oceans and a unique global power that would endure over a century
Helped Britain survive war with France as successor Trafalgar nullified the real threat of invasion and ensured France could not destroy Britain's rich global commerce system it ensured Britain British trade and Empire could safely prosper and expand, creating wealth and allowing Britain to fund her continental allies, boosting trade and ending threat to shipping
Britain never gave up the conflict, never allowed Napoleon to the opportunity to consolidate his power and rebuild the continent in his own image
Even Hitler perceived Nelson’s column as the Symbol of British naval my and world domination, and was keen to display in Berlin if his invasion plans proved more successful than Napoleons.
Nelson
Joined Royal Navy at 13 due to his patronage by his maternal uncle
was captain of a frigate by 21 but career stalled until the outbreak of war with France in 1793 when he was given command of the 60 four gun battleship HMS Agamemnon
appointed as captain of HMS captain in 1797 in which he broke from the line at the Battle of Cape St Vincent to secure his reputation of a courageous, daring, arguably hot headed, impetuous naval officer and leader of men
Weaponry
Carnage obliterated masts
coppering fast made chips faster and more manoeuvrable
chain shot: two lead balls on a chain fired out of carnage, taking down the enemy sail
canister shot: brakes when gun is fired
Why was Britain involved in a continental war with revolutionary France?
Geopolitical and military all out: Austrian Empire (Led by Mary Antoinette's brother Emperor Leopold the second) Started war.
French Republic declared war on Austria and Prussia in 1792
Austrian Netherlands and Antwerp port annexed by France and British interests directly threatened
British reacted and insisted France's withdrawal from Holland
france refused and declared war on dutch and Britain
Treaty of Amiens brought end of Revolutionary Wars
worries of spread of ideas to UK regarding Republic
French invaded Egypt, with intention of getting to India
Coalition warfare and importance
Conflict including the cooperation of multiple countries on the same side in a war effort when they are not part of a military alliance, including Britain, Austria and Russia in the second coalition.
It was difficult for Britain to invade as it didn't have strong army on land. It is also an island meat, meaning it doesn't have easy access to continental Europe, unlike other countries, such as Austria and Spain
how did Britain afford coalition warfare?
Britain's second most urbanised country in Europe
more modern economy
fast developing under industrial revolution, which transformed manufacturing and working life
managing national debt: borrowing and selling stocks through Bank of England
income tax established from 1798
agriculture transformed
new markets in expanding empire
stable financial systems to back war effort
Why was coalition warfare successful?
Britain's financial strength enabled it to fund it with allies such as Austria and Prussia
it gave 50 million pound allies including 4.6 million to Austria
allied with countries on continental Europe, meaning they could attack France from their borders and in some cases surround France such as within the sixth coalition
it could use other countries and resources and well trained soldiers
Primary roles of the navy
protect GB from invasion
Economic blockade of enemy seaborne trade
Engage enemy wherever and whenever
Nations involved in the French War
France, Belgium, Spain, Turkey, USA, Denmark and Russia
life at sea
much of life there
Wives of skilled seamen (carpenters, riggers, gunners, cooks) often accompanied their husbands
Diet very important: Fresh meat and veg for 6 weeks until supplies exhausted and then salted meat and bread from grain supplies
Hard work and harsh discipline
Sailors away from home for lengthy periods, even years
Inspired by opportunity of prize money
Navy’s secondary roles
command colonial water and capture enemy colonies
Protect GB merchant fleet
Expand navy via prize system
Transportation of troops and comms.
class hierarchy in the Navy
maintained order and discipline
Officers typically middle class/ lower aristocracy, recruited via patronage
Young boys get authority from social class
Artisans and skilled workers were often part of the crew, serving under officers.
Most seamen joined to escape poverty and prison. Navy life provided 3 meals and discipline
ships nelson commanded
initially 6th rate frigates and 3rd rate
Commanded HMS victory into Trafalgar and commanded flagship of 22 ships - his was a 104-gun first rate battleship
why didn’t the navy have many first rate ships?
very expensive to build and maintain
Frustrated ships required 800 men and there were issues with recruitment
they were the slowest and third rates were preferable for speed
easier to destroy as they were larger
What were smaller ships used for?
Transportation and communications useful for attacking unarmed enemy merchant ships
1809: used 144 fifth rates and 251 sloops
importance of naval expenditure at war
Extra cost covers new ships needed
primary amount of government expenditure on Navy as it was the Britain’s first defence
during war: income tax first introduced
Reasons for fluctuating expenditure
1802: Decrease in expenditure due to peacetime
1803: Increase in expenditure as Britain prepared for renewed conflict against France.
Economic pressures and military needs influenced naval funding, leading to fluctuations based on peace or war.
1805: Increasing threat, with 14m in naval supplies due to impending threat of Trafalgar
1812: USA declared war on GB
why did the First Lord of the Admiralty sit on the British War Cabinet?
Royal Navy is the biggest employer in the world
some are admirals: risen through ranks and have expertise
navy central to development of the Empire which was expanding at the time
why were there different First Lords?
Lot of change in PMs during French wars and they could choose their own men
traditionally seen as stepping stone in a political career.
Henry Dundas later became PM.
Blockade
Navy blockaded entire French and Spanish coast, as well as Netherlands as its controlled by France
Corsica
Island owned by France. Repeated attempts to capture it as it would give Royal Navy a base on doorstep of France
Cape St Vincent
Battle between Britain and Spain off the coast of Spain.
Battle of the Nile
Great success for Nelson is Britain annihilated the French fleet
Copenhagen
Cortana talk to Danish fleet against orders. Copenhagen was a big port and Napoleon tried to gain control of Danish fleet
Trafalgar
A pivotal naval battle in 1805 where Admiral Nelson led the British fleet to a decisive victory against the combined French and Spanish fleets, ensuring British naval supremacy. Great victory against Spanish and French force. Nelson dies.
Glorious 1st June 1794
Admiral Lord Howe, 25 ships of the line
Admiral Villaret Joyeuse, 26 ships of line
Not involving Nelson, first major victory
Britain defined naval convention by ordering fleets towards France
Glorious 1st June - reasons
Stop French exporting grain from USA to France
capture as many French ships as possible
blockade Britain to get grain into France
Glorious 1st June - outcome
Grain reached breast, averted famine in France
captured 6 prizes and sank one french ship
british fleet lost 1200 men but no ships
great British victory
1794: army losing every battle so the government called it glorious propaganda reasons
Cape St Vincent 1797
Nelson Captain of HMS captain. 3rd rate with 74 guns
admiral was Sir John Jervis and had 15 ships of the line
admiral Ramos With twenty five ships of the line
Cape St Vincent - reasons
Spanish allied with France and Royal Navy blockading port of Cadiz
nelson disobeyed orders, broke from line and headed into Spanish fleet
spanish plan to meet French at Brest for merchant convoy
captured Spanish ship when another came alongside immediately also capturing it
used cannons of all 3 ships to get rid of largest ship Santisma Trinidad
Cape St Vincent - reasons
Big victory for British
made Nelson famous and cemented his reputation
Nelson and crew managed to capture two other ships made rear admiral because of exploits in this battle. Able to command a small flee of ships
Spanish: 4 ships of line captured, 250 killed with 3800 casualties
British: no ships, 73 killed and 300 casualties
Santa Cruz de Tenerife 22-5 July 1797
Nelson: 4000 sailors, 3 ships of line and 400 guns
Santayana: 1700 sailors, 91 guns
Tenerife - reasons
Very daring attempt to capture Tenerife
important role of Navy was to capture enemy colonies
amphibious covering both land and Sea
took place at fortress
Tenerife - outcome
Failure
Nelson lost right arm from Musket ball
Britain: 250 dead, 128 wounded, 300 captured
Spain: 30 dead, 40 wounded
Battle of the Nile 1-2 August 1798
Nelson in command of HMS Vanguard, Fourteen ships of the line
Bruey d’Algallierd, 13 ships of line
Nile - reasons
Order to find Napoleon and has intelligence that he was in the Mediterranean
finds French fleet at anchor in River Nile while Napoleon and his army were in Egypt
only a third of the crew were there
Fought all night
French flagship L’Orient exploded at 10:00 o'clock and a cannonball hit the gunpowder compartment
Nile - outcome
Britishly crippled French and left Napoleon standard in Egypt with his army
British: 218 killed, 677 wounded - 900 casualties
French: 2-8k casualties, 2 ships of line destroyed, 9 captured
Battle of Copenhagen 2 April 1801
Parker and Nelson, 12 ships of line , five frigates
Fischer and Bille, 9 ships of line, 11 sloops, 17 others
Copenhagen - reasons
Blow some disregarded orders and refuse to withdraw
engaged Danish Fleet at Anchor in Copenhagen
port damaged Danish fleet to ensure it was unfit to be subsumed into the French fleet
Copenhagen - outcome
Nelson awarded with a peerage for his action at Copenhagen
3 Danish ships sunk and 12 captured - six ships of the line were captured
1600 Danish killed, wounded or captured
Battle of Trafalgar- 21 October 1805
Nelson, 27 battleships, 17k men and 2148 guns
Villeneuve, 33 battleships, 30k men and 2568 guns
Trafalgar - reasons
19th October: Villeneuve left Cadiz for Italy
Lawson had commanded fleet of Cadiz and gave chase.
Spanish ships to join Villeneuve's fleet, aiming to break the British blockade and support French operations in the Mediterranean.
Trafalgar - outcome
Two columns shattered enemy line and won massive victory
Britain take 18 enemy battleships
nelson shot by French sharpshooter and dies of his wounds
458 killed including Nelson twenty one French and Spanish ships captured and one destroyed 4395 killed
Nelson - leadership style
Great leader of men and adored battle scorned as he'd lost an eye and arm
led from the front
band of Brothers: invited all captains to have dinner with him night before battle and briefed them
nelson touch: encapsulated genius Of tactics, leadership and personal personal qualities including crossing the T
Nelson - battles fought
USA war independence as captain of HMS Albemarle
cape St Vincent as captain of HMS Agamemnon
HMS captain at Santa Cruz de Tenerife
HMS Vanguard at the battle of the Nile
Copenhagen
Trafalgar
Nelson- tactics in battle
raking
Crossing the T: Going straight for enemy
Bridge of battleships
Split the fleet into two lines at Trafalgar
Nelson - impact and legacy
Most important figure for the Navy
Trafalgar Square immortalises him and his battle forever
dying in In the battle led his men to immortalise him and created his legend
Role of Navy post-Trafalgar
Protect trade and merchant fleets
protect British Empire
blockade trade ports
maintain naval supremacy
Reasons for British success at sea 1793-1815
Effective close range gun owner with muscle loading cannons primarily using solid iron balls
Carronades killed enemy men and destroyed masts using chain shop cannons - Britain were the only nation to have these
Highly trained men and strong recruitment they had typically lower death tolls
great leadership from Nelson and his captains inspired the men
hulls of British ships had coppering making them faster and more manoeuvrable
The Nelson touch
a naval tactic emphasizing aggressive action and bold leadership, inspired by Admiral Nelson's strategies during battles. This approach focused on decisive engagement and the element of surprise, often leading to significant victories for the British Navy.
Nelson's idea was to quickly bring about a melee in which, due to superior gunnery, the British would have a distinct advantage.
Nelson planned to divide his fleet into three sections.[a] The largest part would engage closely with one section of the enemy's fleet crushing it with greater numbers. The other ships, sailing in two columns, would cut the enemy line and prevent them from coming to the aid of their comrades. The enemy fleet could then be destroyed by concentrating firepower and exploiting weaknesses in the enemy's formation.
Creating trust amongst his officers was crucial to Nelson. It allowed him to rely on simple strategies rather than complicated battle plans, certain in the knowledge that his subordinates would support one another in achieving the overall objective and be confident enough to use their own initiative when required
Britain’s return to Copenhagen in 1807
25000 vs 10000 danish troops
3000 danish casualties vs. 42 British deaths and 145 wounded.
The British forces aimed to capture Copenhagen and its naval assets, leading to significant military engagement and ultimately establishing control over the Danish fleet.
Entire Danish fleet surrendered
Bombardment using congreve rockets
Walcheren in 1809
British expeditionary force of 39,000 troops, together with field artillery and two siege trains, crossed the North Sea and landed at Walcheren on 30 July.
but heavy losses from the sickness popularly dubbed "Walcheren Fever". Although more than 4,000 British troops died during the expedition, only 106 were killed in action
the survivors withdrew on 9 December. Defending Franco-Dutch forces also suffered heavy casualties, including 4,000 men dead, wounded or captured
Over 12000 British fell ill, 5000 dutch and French ill
War in the USA- 1812
the United States declared war on Britain on 18 June 1812.
This conflict arose from ongoing tensions over trade restrictions, impressment of American sailors, and British support for Native American attacks on American frontier settlements. The war resulted in several significant battles and ultimately solidified American independence.
Britain had 48000 troops by end of war, 11 ships of line, 34 frigates
USA: 35800 troops, and 22 ships of line.
2700 Britons killed in action or from disease compared to 7400 US deaths
Flanders campaign 1792-5
Duke of York, 2nd son of George III; 200 000 troops
Philippe and de Custine
The Flanders campaign - reasons
French revolution radicalised and fears it could spread to elsewhere in Europe
first coalition mobilised military forces on all French borders with intention of invading France and restoring the monarchy
Austria and Prussia threatened to intervene if French Royals harmed
Britain increasingly worried about security of united provinces
wanted to bully new Republic into submission to secure British interests
Flanders campaign - outcome
humiliating defeat for the British and their allies, leading to a retreat and the eventual stabilization of French control over the region.
1794: harsh winter with rampant disease
no coordination, lack of planning and leadership, no chance of winning and withdrew as it’s too late
allies abandoned low countries
French victory
retreated to Bremen and ordered to return to Britain by Pitt: less than 6k British soldiers evacuated
over 200k men killed in 2 years
Duke of York as Commander of British Army
took place of Lord Amherst in 1795
army struggled with: sudden growth, lack of professionalism - sudden outbreak of war, old units reformed and 30 new regiments created
instilled more professionalism via standard drills and a new military college - 1795 reforms
improved rations and barracks
Helder Campaign - 27th August-19th November
Duke of York, 40k men
Brune, 25k men, 7000 casualties, 25 ships lost
Helder Campaign - reasons
to support the Dutch against French control, protect British trade routes, and counter French expansion in Europe.
expeditionary force of British and Russian troops invaded North Holland peninsular
objectives: neutralise Batavian fleet and encourage uprising by followers of William V against Batavian Gov.
expected Republic to collapse due to Dutch moving to the side of Britain
part of the 2nd coalition during war with revolutionary France
joint venture between Britain and Russia to open second front in Holland and restore House of Orange